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ELEMENTARY 

AGRICULTURE 

FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS 




BY 


E. B. ROBBINS 


PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SOUTHEASTERN STATE 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, DJJRANT, OKLAHOMA 


AND 


JOSEPH C. IRELAND 

PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, SOUTHEASTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE; 
FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURE, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; 
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENT AND SCIENTIFIC ASSISTANT, 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



TURNER E. SMITH COMPANY 


ATLANTA, GEORGIA 

1924 


^^5 

"Rci 


Copyright, 1924 
Turner E. Smith Company 
Atlanta, Georgia 



L. H. JENKINS, INC. 
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 

RUG 15’24 
©C1A800502 

'WO | 


PREFACE 


The development and maintenance of interest is the 
secret of successful teaching. Young people, who have 
become interested in their school work and have learned 
that it will be of practical value in the vocations of life, 
will continue their studies after leaving school. With the 
present crowded programs in the elementary schools, it is 
impossible for the teacher to devote a great amount of 
time and preparation for carrying on the work. This text 
is planned to aid the busy teacher and to give the pupil 
some general facts relating to agriculture. It is hoped 
that the nature and the scope of the subject-matter will 
aid in linking together the home and the school. 

After several years of experience in teaching agricul¬ 
ture, it has been found that teachers have difficulty in 
producing the desired inspiration from a mass of dry 
agricultural facts. The correlation of mind and hand 
enters so well into the study of agriculture that the 
entire course should center around doing things. Realiz¬ 
ing that the compilation of a mass of agricultural facts 
does not fulfill this ideal, the authors have selected from 
the field of agriculture those topics which are practical. 
The subject matter and practical exercises given in this 
text have been tried and have been found applicable in 
rural schools. The pedagogical principle involved in 
this text are the appeals made to the minds of the boys 
and girls by introducing those things which are most 
valuable in a well-rounded education. Every child likes 
pets. He is greatly interested in collecting and in mak¬ 
ing things. Above all, he should learn to realize the 
importance of agriculture. 

The material has been arranged so that the prospective 
and experienced teacher may carry on the work of teach- 

in 


IV 


PREFACE 


ing agriculture without great difficulty. It is possible 
for the pupil to gain information and make application 
of the knowledge without personal supervision from the 
teacher, except during the short periods allowed for 
studying agriculture. 

Inexperienced teachers will find a list of questions at 
the end of each chapter. These are intended to guide the 
students in their study. The practical work is arranged 
so that most of it may be assigned as Home Projects. 
The periods for practical exercises may thus be devoted 
to reports and discussions of what the pupils are doing. 
Written reports are valuable for composition work. 
Realizing that many students have difficulty in using a 
dictionary, a list of words with definitions, applying to 
the material in the text has been added. References have 
been given to aid the pupils and the teacher. These 
include bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agricul¬ 
ture and from other sources, all of which may be had 
without cost. 

The illustrations are made from actual photographs of 
farm operations. They offer many suggestions to stu¬ 
dents who will study them. 

In presenting the subject-matter, the authors have 
tried to avoid the usage of technical terms, beyond the 
understanding of the average grade pupil. 

We wish to acknowledge and express our appreciation 
for the valuable suggestions of Professor P. G. Holden, 
Director of the Agricultural Extension Department of 
the International Harvester Company; Dr. Chas. A. 
Shull, Plant Physiologist of the University of Chicago; 
President Henry G. Bennett, of the Southeastern State 
Teachers College, Durant, Oklahoma; N. Conger, Direc¬ 
tor of Teachers’ Training, Southeastern State Teachers 
College, and many other teachers. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


The following list indicates the sources of illustrations 
that are not the property of the authors and publishers. 
Numbers refer to the Figures. 

The Agricultural Extension Department of the Inter¬ 
national Harvester Company:—Figures 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 22, 
23, 24, 25, 33, 39, 56, 61, 62, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 
114a, 114b, 117b, 118, 119, 120, 126, 128, 132, 135, 162a 
162b, 163, 166, 167. 

Oklahoma A. & M. College, Hereford, Brae Repeater, 
Figure 51. 

Stark Brothers Nursery and Orchard Co., Louisiana, 
Mo., Figure 145. 


v 























































* I 









CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Study of Agriculture. 1 

II. Study of Seeds. 9 

III. The School Exhibit.21 

IV. Farm Equipment.33 

V. The Farm Orchard.49 

VI. Growing Trees.62 

VIE Cattle.75 

VIII. Work Animals.97 

IX. Hogs .110 

X. Poultry.128 

XL The Soil.146 

XII. Improving Farm Land.158 

XIII. Seed Germination.168 

XIV Vegetable Gardening. 179 

XV. Flowers.189 

XVI. Beautiful Grounds Gladden Living. . 199 

XVII. Corn Growing.213 

XVIII. The Small Grains ..220 

XIX. Forage Crops.232 

XX. Cotton.246 

XXL Sweet Potato.260 

XXII. Familiar Farm Enemies.270 

XXIII. The Local Club Organization .... 284 

Index.297 

vii 




















































. 









* 


















CHAPTER I 


THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture the Pillar of Industry.—What is agri¬ 
culture? Why do we study agriculture? Agriculture is 
the science and art of producing plants and animals use¬ 
ful to man. It is the most important industry in the 
world. It may be compared to the foundation of a house. 
If the foundation of the house is strong and well built, 
it will stand for years and be of great value to man. This 
is true of agriculture, because it is the foundation of all 
business. Without it we would not have juicy peaches, 
watermelons, and other delicious fruits to eat. We would 
not have vegetables such as green corn, red tomatoes, 
radishes, potatoes, and the like. From the farm comes 
the “staff of life,” which is bread. The raising of live¬ 
stock supplies our tables with meat, milk, butter, and 
eggs. Furthermore, the clothing that we wear is made 
from cotton, flax, wool, and silk, which are produced on 
the farm. From the forest we get lumber for building- 
purposes, pulp for paper, wood for fuel, edible nuts, and 
many other valuable products such as rubber, maple 
sugar, resin, and turpentine. It is a well known fact that 
when the farmers of America produce good crops, busi¬ 
ness flourishes, our needs are supplied, and people are 
happy. 

Knowledge is Power in Business and Farming.— 

Whatever occupation one may choose for his life’s work, 
it is well that he have a fundamental knowledge of farm¬ 
ing. Whether a doctor, minister, lawyer, teacher, mer- 

1 


2 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


chant, banker, mechanic, carpenter, dealer in lands, or- 
follower of any other profession or vocation, one will find 
a knowledge of general agriculture helpful in his work. 
The artist who is familiar with flowers, trees, the contour 
of lands, and with plant and animal life in general, dis¬ 
covers and uses many beautiful models of Nature’s own 
creation, which are pleasing to the eye when portrayed 
in a picture. The busy housewife, who knows good fruits 
and vegetables, poultry, butter, and eggs, will purchase 



Fig. 1.—Pigs in Alfalfa. 


food of good quality at reasonable prices, and thus pre¬ 
vent waste and unnecessary expense in furnishing the 
table. A good merchant needs to know the varieties of 
goods, farm equipment, tools, and luxuries demanded by 
the farmers in his district. If he is familiar with the 
crops and animals produced in his community, he is 
better able to supply the needs of the farmers and pre¬ 
vent loss from credit accounts. Bankers'throughout the 
country have many dealings with farmers and are work¬ 
ing for the betterment of farming. Boys who expect to 
become bankers need agricultural training. 

Many boys and girls who study agriculture in the pub- 








THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 3 

lie schools will return to the farm and follow farming as 
a business. These students will learn many valuable 
lessons in class, which will aid them in their work. 

Joy in Agriculture.—There is an unending joy in 
watching the growth of plants; in seeing how the buds 
unfurl, how the leaves expand, and how the flowers ap- 


Fig. 2.—Hen and Chicks. 

pear. Is there anything more enjoyable than visiting a 
farm where there are young pigs frisking about in the 
grass and alfalfa? Does it ever occur to you that the 
old hen, hustling about the orchard, with ten or twelve 
chicks, for which she may be scratching, will be a source 
of profit as well as pleasure? 

Do You Like Pets?—Did you ever own a pet rabbit? 
Notice what funny whiskers he has. His nose turns up 



4 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


at everything. He has a very odd way of holding his 
long ears. Hasn’t he the softest coat? Next to a rabbit, 
a little mule colt is the funniest thing. What long slender 
legs he has; what ears; what an unusual tail, and what a 
mischievous twinkle in his eye. He is not to be trusted, 
because the long hind legs fly up most unexpectedly. 

Why is a Survey Important?—By making a survey 
of the farm one learns to know the conditions as they 



Fig. 3.—Did you ever own a pet rabbit? 


really exist. The facts learned will be of much value in 
talking intelligently about the home and the vocation of 
one’s parents. By comparing the information gained in 
the study of the home farm with the reports of friends 
and classmates, many lessons will be learned regarding 
the most profitable kinds of farming that may be fol¬ 
lowed in a neighborhood. 





THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 


5 



In Making a Survey, it will be helpful to take a note¬ 
book and make a list of the important facts about the 
farm. Note the name of the owner, size of the farm, list 
of the crops raised, kinds and number of animals, manner 
of marketing, fencing, equipment, implements, sheds, feed 
for stock, and number of people employed upon the farm. 


Fig. 4.—A mule colt. Watch his heels. 

It is not intended that one should make an elaborate 
survey, but obtain those facts of importance to the school 
district. 

The Value of the Survey is that it arouses interest 
in the home and school. It may present some new view 
of the methods of handling crops. There is always some 
branch of agriculture that is especially suited to par¬ 
ticular sections of the country. By combining the results 
of the survey, we learn what is most important to be 
studied during the year. While it is desirable to have 




6 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


some knowledge of general agriculture, we should strive 
to improve conditions in the community. 

We may not live upon farms, but most of us are ac¬ 
quainted with farmers and may ask them about the 
amount of their farm products. Each member of the 
class providing information from some particular farm 
of the community will furnish enough information to 
decide what is the most important product. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is agriculture called the foundation of industry? 

2. In what way are you depending upon agriculture? 

3. What foods on your table come from the farm? 

4. Why do we say, “Knowledge is Power”? 

5. Why should boys and girls who do not expect to live upon 
a farm study agriculture? 

6. How are the occupations of men in your community in¬ 
fluenced by agriculture? 

7. What is the value of pets? 

8. W T hat is a community survey? 

9. Of what advantage is a community survey? 

10. Tell how to make a community survey. 

PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: Collecting and assembling information. 

Materials: Notebook, pencil, measuring equipment. 

Procedure: If you live upon a farm, collect the following 
information from your farm: (if you do not), visit a farm and 
obtain the information from the people operating it. 

1. Give the name of the owner of the farm. 

2. Give the location and size of the farm. 

3. Give the names of the owners of adjoining farms. 

4. List the crops raised upon the farm you are studying, and 
give the number of acres planted to each. 

5. How does the owner dispose of his crops? 


THE STUDY OF AGRICULTURE 


7 


6. What kinds of animals are raised upon the farm, how many 
of each kind? 

7. What use is made of these animals? 

8. What animals are raised for their products? 

9. How are the animal products marketed? 

10. What kind of fencing is used upon the farm? 

11. How many people work regularly upon the farm? 

12. List the farm equipment used tp operate the farm 

13. How much grain and hay is kept? 

Results: Write out a report of your visit to the farm, which 
will cover suggestions given in the procedure. Tabulate the 
results of the entire class upon the blackboard. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To draw a map of the farm. 

Materials: Pencil, ruler, paper, tape line. 

Procedure: 1 . The size and boundary lines of the farm are 
first determined. If these are not known, it may be necessary 
to measure them. 

2. Draw a map of the farm, representing the size in proportion 
to the measurements. The house, bams, and other buildings 
should also be located in their relative places. 

3. Locate the fields, lanes, and roads within the boundary lines 
of the farm. This may not be difficult, if the farm is small. 

Results: Compare the maps with those of other members of 
the class. Write the names of the crops grown in each field and 
the rotation on the map. Also, indicate the number of cattle, 
hogs, horses, and mules pastured upon different fields. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Art. Skill in doing things. 

Contour. The outline of the surface of the ground with 
respect to hills and valleys. 

Farm. A plot of land devoted to the raising of domestic 
plants and animals. 

Frisking. To move quickly and playfully. 

Fundamental. The most important part or the foundation. 

Luxuries. Those things which are pleasing, or rare, or costly. 

Portray. To picture; to represent by drawing. 

Procedure. Methods or steps taken in doing anything. 


8 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Rotation. Cultivation of succession of crops on the same land. 
Science. A knowledge of principles or facts. 

Survey. Finding out the conditions, quantities and qualities 
of things. 

Tilling. To prepare for seed planting and to cultivate. 

Unfurl. To let loose. 


CHAPTER II 


STUDY OF SEEDS 

A Field Trip.—Would you not like to go into the 
fields and study the seeds of our common farm plants? 
During the month of September there are many kinds of 
valuable as well as harmful plants, which are bearing 
seeds. It is interesting and profitable to know what is 
being raised on the farms near your home. 

Learn Seeds.—Did you ever stop to consider that 
most of the plants of next year will come from the seeds 
of the plants now growing in our fields? The cotton, 
corn, and grasses of next year will be largely determined 
by the quality of seeds planted. In fact, the plants you 
find growing in the fields are the parents of those which 
will grow next year. The strong and vigorous stalks of 
corn bear ears from which many strong stalks may grow. 
Selection means a larger yield, and greater profits for the 
labor of growing the crop. 

You may be interested in knowing that the improve¬ 
ment in all our farm crops has come through selection 
and cultivation. Our cultivated plants were once wild. 
Man has selected the best from these until our cultivated 
plants not only provide for future propagation but also 
a large amount of food for the human race. Think of 
the hundreds of millions of people who eat rice, wheat, 
and corn as a part of their daily food. Think of the 
great needs of the people of the earth for food. 

Seed Classification.—Experience shows that very few 
boys and girls or active plant growers are able to take a 

9 


10 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

mixed sample of our familiar garden, field, and flower 
seeds and separate them into groups according to species 
or variety. The seed sample may contain other seeds, 
untrue to name, with insect life and foreign matter 
present. Hence, the crop may be planted at a loss and 
with disappointment to the grower. 



Fig. 5.—An early selection of field corn, following most scientific methods 
of securing the best. 


Cheap Seeds that are Expensive.—By obtaining 

samples of seeds from stores or some other commercial 
source, some interesting studies may be made. It will 
be found that many seeds are not what the name upon 
the package implies. Many contain harmful weed seeds. 
Others contain a mixture of unknown seeds. The word 
“adulteration” is applied to these mixtures. Commercial 
brands of seeds should represent the best that can be 
obtained, but unfortunately many kinds are poorer than 
those grown at home. The mere fact that we read a 



STUDY OF SEEDS 


11 



glowing advertisement in a seed catalogue does not insure 
a large yield of corn nor a cotton crop free from boll 
weevil. A careful study of the different kinds of seeds 
will enable us to detect adulterations. 

Collecting Seeds.—You will find it interesting to 
visit the fields, gardens, and woodlands of your com¬ 
munity, collecting for study the seeds that are useful and 


Fig 6.—Small grains arranged for the display of heads. 

A. Rye. B. Barley. C. Oats. D. Wheat. 

harmful. Here you will get acquainted with the natural 
surroundings of the parent plants and learn how Nature 
aids them in producing seeds and in the struggle for 
existence. You will learn why some plants are stronger 
and better than others. There is much satisfaction in 
learning why good farmers, who have given their crops 
proper cultivation and have used proper management, 
are so successful, happy, and contented with their busi¬ 


ness. 






12 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Beginning the Field Selection of Seeds involves 

the problem of securing and saving those which yield 
most. Men have spent years trying to improve the 
standard of field crops. Their beginnings were with very 
poor plants, and long continued efforts have been neces¬ 
sary to obtain our high producing varieties. 

While many farmers do not have time to collect seeds 
according to the most scientific methods, the seeds of our 



Fig. 7.—A. Good cotton stalk. 
B. Poor cotton stalk. 


common crops require some study. The idea of field 
selection, by making use of suggestions for special crop 
work, will aid in improving the home supply of seeds. 

Corn.—After the corn has ripened, go through the 
field with a seed picking bag and husk the ears from the 
stalks that have produced the most corn without having 
any special advantages such as space, moisture, or fer¬ 
tility. Avoid the large ears on stalks standing singly 





STUDY OF SEEDS 


13 


with an unusual amount of space around them. Prefer¬ 
ence should be given plants that have produced most 
heavily in competition with a full stand of less productive 
plants. 

“In all localities the inherent tendency of the plant to 
produce heavily of sound, dry, shelled corn is of most 
importance. 

“Late maturing plants with ears which are heavy be¬ 
cause of an excessive amount of sap should be ignored. 



Fig. 8.—A. Poor peanuts. 

B. Good peanuts. 


Sappiness greatly increases the harvest size and is likely 
to destroy the quality. 

“Short, thick stalks are preferable. Short stalks are 
not easily blown down and permit thicker planting. 
Thick stalks are not so easily broken down and in gen¬ 
eral are more productive than the slender ones. The 
tendency for corn to produce suckers is hereditary. Seed 
should generally be taken from stalks that have no 
suckers.” (U. S. Dept. Agri., Farmers Bui, 415: p. 5.) 

Improved Cotton.—In selecting seed cotton from the 
field it is desirable that it should be collected from plants 





14 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


that begin to fruit early, fruiting rapidly and continu¬ 
ously. Usually plants possessing these characteristics 
have a strong central stem, with their first fruiting 
branches formed early and close to the ground. Such 
plants may vary in height from three to five feet, de¬ 
pending on the variety, soil, and climatic conditions. 
Plants of this type produce larger yields than those fruit¬ 
ing later and with the fruits higher on the stem. Another 



Fig. 9.—A good method of stringing seed corn. It may be handled conven¬ 
iently, disinfected in barrels and suspended upon nails. 


important feature in selecting seed cotton is the size and 
number of divisions in the boll. Cotton yielding large 
bolls, averaging 60 to 70 to the pound, are more resistant 
to weather, easier to pick, and mature much more rapidly 
than cotton requiring 120 to 150 bolls per pound. Each 
boll may have from four to five cells in which locks are 
formed. The length of the fiber may vary from % to 
1*% 6 inches in the upland varieties. Short staple cotton, 
like other farm crops, may be improved by selecting the 
high yielding strains with long, strong, fine fiber. 




STUDY OF SEEDS 


15 


Storing the Seed Cotton.—In order to prevent injury 
from moisture, the picked cotton should be placed under 
cover. Later, the seeds may be picked from the cotton 
by hand. While only a small amount could be planted 
by such a method, the improved selections will provide 
better seed for the following year. 

Oats.—“The improvement of oats through the selec¬ 
tion of individual plants or heads and the testing of these 
selected strains is interesting and valuable work for those 



Fig. 10.—A schoolroom display adds to the attractiveness of the place. 

who have the time and patience to devote to it. The 
best heads should be selected from strong and vigorous 
plants growing under normal conditions. The selected 
heads should be threshed separately by hand and the 
seed from each planted in a row by itself. The seed from 
each of the selected rows is threshed and planted; the 
best rows being again selected at harvest time for further 
testing and increase the next year.” 

Peanut seed should not only be selected from plants 
that are mature, but from those producing a large num¬ 
ber of pods as well, By doubling the number of well- 





16 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


filled pods on each plant, the yield from each acre will 
also be doubled. Many millions of bushels have been 
added to the corn crop of the country simply through the 
selection and improvement of seed. 

“What has been done with corn is possible with the 
peanut, and where we now have an average yield of 34 
bushels to the acre it is reasonable to expect this to be 


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increased to 50 or 60 bushels through cultural methods 
and seed improvements.” (U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 431: p. 10.) 

Storing Seeds.—The best method of treating seed 
corn after gathering is shown in the accompanying dia¬ 
gram. Binder twine will support 10 to 15 ears arranged 
in the manner illustrated. Ordinarily the best place to 
hang these strings of ears, until they are dry, is in an 
open shed or in an unused room of your school building. 




STUDY OF SEEDS 


17 



Later storing in insect-proof boxes or barrels, will prevent 
losses by vermin. 

Heads of small grain may also be bound in bundles as 
shown in Figure 6, and preserved for future study. 

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate methods of preparing cotton 
and peanuts for school study. 


Fig. 12.—Seeds mounted in bottles. 

Destroying ^Afeevils or Grain Moths.—Before put¬ 
ting the seeds away for any length of time, it is a good 
plan to treat them to destroy weevils or moths. Carbon 
disulphide in a tight box, barrel, or room for two days 
will destroy any insects that may be upon the seed. The 
disulphide should be placed in shallow dishes or pans on 
top of the seed. One-half pint will treat ten bushels of 
seed and is net expensive. After the grain has been 




18 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


treated it should be thoroughly aired, taking care that 
no fire is near when the fumigating box is opened. The 
treatment may need to be repeated at times during the 
year. 

A School Display.—While collecting various kinds 
of seeds, nothing will add more to the attractiveness of 
the school room than a well arranged display. These 
seeds will also be of value in later studies of seed germi¬ 
nation and in preparing exhibits. It is easy to hang ten- 
ear bunches of seed corn upon the walls where they may 
be away from rats and mice. After drying, all the small 
grains may be displayed in glass jars or glass-covered 
boxes. These should be plainly labeled and arranged in 
a manner similar to that in Figure 10. The heads of 
grains, grasses and weeds may be tied in neat bundles for 
arrangement along the walls. Cardboard and a small 
supply of glue or library paste may be used in making 
a very attractive display of individual seeds. Figures 
11 and 12 were made in this way. 

Even a board with small holes, covered with glass, pro¬ 
vides a substantial mount which will protect the seeds 
from vermin. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When is the best time of year to make a field trip to study 

seeds? 

2. Why is the study of seeds interesting and important? 

3. Prepare a list of ten harmful and ten useful seeds. 

4. Mention five impurities of seeds. 

5. Explain the best method of studying seeds. 

6. When is the best time to collect seed cotton? State five 
qualities of a good cotton stalk. 

7. How many bolls of good cotton make a pound? 

8. Give the length of fiber for upland cotton. 

9. How may farmers improve the oat crop? 

10. State four factors to be' considered in collecting peanut 
seed. 


STUDY OF SEEDS 


19 


11. Suggest a good method of storing seed corn. 

12. Explain a simple way of destroying weevils in grain. 

13. What use can be made of the seeds collected in your study? 

14. Mention five ways of arranging seed for a school display. 

PRACTICAL WORK 

1. Field Trip. —After completing the study of seeds it is desira¬ 
ble to arrange for a field trip. Each pupil may be assigned to 
collect ten ears of corn, five kinds of small grains, and fifteen 
kinds of weed seeds. Arrangements should be made for enough 
bags or baskets for the pupils to carry the seeds collected. 

2. Usually a field may be found near the school for selecting 
the corn. It may be well to ask the farmer to accompany the 
class in the study. He may render some valuable assistance and 
help create community interest in the school. The teacher 
should select a good type of stalk, bearing a good ear at a 
medium height as described in the text. This may be used 
as a model. Each pupil should obtain at least ten good ears 
from similar stalks. These should be tied with binder twine as 
shown in Figure 9. 

3. A trip for selecting seed cotton and small grains may be 
arranged, or each pupil may be asked to collect small samples 

the best seeds he can find at home, for future study. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Carbon Disulphide. A chemical compound known as “high 
life,” used in fumigating grain in storage. 

Fumigation. To apply smoke or vapor for disinfecting. 

Hereditary. Handing down or transmitting characteristics from 
the parent to the offspring. 

Husk. To remove the shuck from the ears of corn. 

Inherent. That which belongs to the plant by nature. 

Lock. A natural bunch, or tuft of cotton. 

Preference. The ability .to choose. 

Propagation. The continuance of life. 

Sappiness. Full of sap. 

Species. A distinct kind or sort of plant or animal. 

Staple. The fiber of cotton; the raw material. 

Variety. A group of plants that look alike. 


20 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Vermin. Animals that are noxious or disliked by man as lice, 
mites, and rats. 

Vigorous. Showing strength. 

Weevil. Small insects which eat out the insides of grains. 

REFERENCES 

“Seed Corn,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 415. 

“Oat Production,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 431. 

“Peanut Culture,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 43& 

“Cotton Culture,” Oklahoma Bui. No. 97. 

“Weeds,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 188. 


CHAPTER III 


THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 

Who Has the Best?—Do you know the different 
kinds of corn and cotton raised in your community? Do 
you know who raises the best? Is there any farmer in 
your school district who seems to raise better and more 
regular crops than his neighbors? The best way to find 
out whether your home products are better or worse than 
those of the other people in the district is to prepare an 
exhibit and compare them. How much do you know 
about the different kinds of grain and vegetables grown 
about your home? The object of a school exhibit is to 
find out who grows the best crops, what kind he grows, 
and how he grows them. 

Comparing Products.—Most of our farmers raise 
some corn, cotton, and wheat. If small amounts of each 
of these should be brought into the school room, we 
would find that there is a great difference in the shape 
and color of the corn. There would probably be a differ¬ 
ence in the quality of the cotton and the length of fiber. 
Perhaps two or three farmers in the community have 
some product that is better than that of any others. By 
comparing all of these, we find out which is the best and 
try to produce just as good or better corn or cotton. This 
comparison creates a desire to grow products that repre¬ 
sent the latest improvement and the highest yield. Our 
desire is to reach a standard of perfection that gives the 
highest yield and the greatest income for the grower. 

21 


22 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


If you are showing a few ears of corn, along with those 
of several neighbors, does it not give you a feeling of 
pride to have a judge pronounce your exhibit better than 
all the others? If you are placed second or third, is there 
not a desire to improve your corn so that yours may be 
pronounced the best during the next contest? Compe¬ 
tition is not only the life of business, but it is the life of 
a school. If we feel the need of improving our minds and 



Fig. 13.—An inexpensive school display. 


of sharpening our observation it is well to try to com¬ 
pare our work with that of other people. Those things 
which we think are very good may be very poor com¬ 
pared with others of that class. 

Parental Interest.—Do your fathers and mothers 
know what you are doing at school? Many of them 
depend upon the products which you are studying to 
provide food and the necessities of life. They immedi¬ 
ately become interested in the improvement of the yield 






THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 


23 


of corn or cotton. When you have a school exhibit and 
find that a neighbor has much better corn than your 
father has, you will probably ask your father why he 
does not raise the kind of corn that his neighbors do. 
He may become interested and want to see the products 
compared. A visit to the school means a better under¬ 
standing of the work done. The fact that the school is 
doing some work to improve seeds and grain becomes 
known to many people. They take a direct interest, 
because, if the crops may be improved, it means a greater 



Fig. 14.—A sample of good seed com. 


financial increase. The school is not only aided by the 
parents of the pupils, but the advertising brings favorable 
comment from those who are often finding fault with the 
education of children. 

Preparation.—A school exhibit does not imply a 
special show room with glass cases, blue ribbons, and 
silver cups for a beginning. It does not mean that a 
great portion of the school room should be taken up with 
tables made for the purpose. Children interested in im¬ 
proving the school may start with a board shelf along 
the wall, with a row of corn and a few bolls of cotton. 










24 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The teacher, pupils, and parents should work together 
to make the school exhibit a success. It should not be 
the aim of the community to collect all the odd or 
freakish things, but to collect samples of the best prod¬ 
ucts produced. It is not the purpose of the school to 
have one or two people supply all the material but that 
all of the pupils supply some material. Each boy may 
be able to supply, as a sample, ten ears of corn, twenty 
bolls of cotton, or a peck of wheat. 

Standard Exhibits.—The amounts of standard ex¬ 


hibits are as follows: 

Grain Sorghums.10 heads 

Oats, barley, wheat, rye. 1 peck 

Edible Nuts . 1 peck 

Canes..... •. 5 stalks 

Potatoes. . .".'"Tv .... 1 peck 

Carrots, turnips, beets, root crops.. 6 each 
Vegetables, fruit, eggplant, peppery 

and tomatoes . 6 each 

Vine Crops (peas and beans). 1 gallon 

Cucumbers . 6 each 

Cantaloupe . 3 each 

Pumpkins, squash, watermelons. . . 1 each 

Sweet corn . 1 dozen ears 

Onions . 1 peck 

Pop Corn .10 ears 

Forage crops. 1 bundle 

Eggs .12 each 

Fruits 

Apples (Plate) . 6 each 


Corn is perhaps the most commonly exhibited product 
of the farm. To prepare ten ears of com representing 
the best type of the variety requires much care and prac- 

















THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 


25 


tice. The corn selected for seed from the field usually 
contains some very suitable ears. It is best to collect the 
seed ears early during the months of September and 
October. These have been dried until they are firm and 



Fig. 15.—Ears properly located on stalk. 

A. Those on the left too high. 

B. Ears of medium height. 

C. The low ear is difficult to harvest. 

well seasoned. Uniformity is the great secret of success 
in any exhibit. In corn, this means a collection of ten 
ears having about the same shape, the same depth of 
grains, the same size of cob, straight rows of the same 





26 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


size and number on each ear, and freedom from insect 
injury. By laying out in a row fifty of the best ears of 
corn that you may find, you can probably select ten ears 
of superior quality. 

We consider an exhibit of corn desirable when it pos¬ 
sesses these characters: The ears should be similar in 


^ t # 

* 

t * 



* • 

\ #• ; _ <r 

T. 

wA f' 

f f*r 

A v 

Nr 

V : : 


Fig. 16.—Uniform cotton bolls. The green bolls represent the production of 
one plant. 


size, shape, color, and indentation. They should conform 
to the variety type, being cylindrical, tapering slowly 
from the butt to the tip. Yellow corn has a red cob and 
white corn a white cob. Crossed or mixed grains are not 
desirable in white or yellow varieties. The ears are to 
be ripe, sound, bright, firm, well filled at the tip and 
regular at the butt. The grains or kernels should be 



THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 


27 


uniform in size, wedge-shaped, with a large germ. The 
grain, when shelled, should weigh eighty-five per cent as 
much as the ear. 

It is an excellent plan to have entire stalks, with ears 
attached, showing the proper location of the ear. Ex¬ 
tremely low ears or extremely high ears are not desirable. 
An ear three and one-half feet above the ground on a 
strong shank holding the ear horizontally is the most 
satisfactory. 



A. Cottonseed oil. 

B. Linters. 

C. Cottonseed hulls. 

D. Cottonseed meal. 


E. Cottonseed cake. 

F. Cottonseed with linters removed. 

G. Cottonseed. 


Cotton collected during September and October may 
be used for selecting material for an exhibit. The bolls 
should have been taken from the plants that are three 
or four feet high, with low fruiting branches and large 
bolls. Twenty of the most uniform bolls should be 
selected. The fiber should be bright, silk-like, white, 
free from vegetable odor and immaturity, also free from 
sticks, dust, and stains. The fiber must be strong and 
of uniform length. It should weigh about thirty-five 
per cent as much as the original weight of the seed cotton. 




28 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The seed should be of uniform shape, size, color, and 
thickness of fuzz coat. From sixty to severity bolls make 
a pound for exhibits. The samples should be true to 
variety. 

•The twenty bolls may be mounted in shirt boxes, so 
that the sample may be covered when not in use. Ginned 
cotton may be mounted in the same way. 



Fig. 18. —Forage Crops. 

A. Timothy. C. Sweet Clover. 

B. Alfalfa. D. Millet. 


Cotton by-products are little known by many people 
who live in a cotton country. It is a good plan to dis¬ 
play a little cotton seed meal, cake, oil, cord, thread, 
hulls, and linters. Types of cotton stalks, both desirable 
and undesirable, help to develop the interest in such an 
exhibit. 

Forage Crops are perhaps the most difficult to dis¬ 
play. They should be cut and dried so that the bundles 





THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 29 

are bright, of natural color, and of uniformity. Tying 
the bundles requires much care. The tops, butts, and 
centers need a band. 

Small Grains are exhibited in paper or cloth bags. A 
peck of the grain is poured into the bag and the top is 
rolled down. It is desirable to have grain of uniform size, 
and it should weigh heavily. In order to get the grains 
which weigh most, a larger amount of seed is taken and 


Fig. 19.—Small grains in bags for exhibition. 

thrown across the room. The heaviest grains travel 
farthest and may be collected for the sample. 

Head grain exhibits make a very effective display. 
From fifty to one hundred heads to the bundle may be 
tied at the top, bottom, and center. Bright straw free 
from leaves is best. 

Eggs.—To encourage the production of a better qual¬ 
ity of eggs and an interest in the poultry industry, noth¬ 
ing is more valuable than an egg show. Twelve eggs are 
shown as an entry. They should be as nearly alike as 






30 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

possible. There are white-shelled eggs and -brown-shelled 
eggs. The former are usually from the small breeds of 
hens, as the Leghorn and our “egg breeds.” The brown 
eggs are from the large general purpose or meat breeds. 
A dozen eggs should weigh from twenty-four to twenty- 
seven ounces. The object is to get a dozen eggs that are 
uniform in shape, size, and color. 



Fig. 20.— Provisions for showing and marketing eggs. 
A. and B. Egg marketing eases. 

(left) Brown eggs. - (right) White eggs. 


The individual egg should have a shell as nearly per¬ 
fect as possible. It should be free from lime knots, 
blotches, checks, air spaces, and other defects which you 
may see by holding the egg to the light. Dirty or 
cracked eggs are undesirable. Washing eggs produces a 
glossy appearance that is not permitted in egg shows. 
The yolks should be rich golden in color, without spots 
except the germ. 

One great advantage in learning to judge eggs is the 
grading of eggs for the market. Often hens lay eggs of 








THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT 


31 


various sorts and shapes. If we should select the most 
perfect and uniform, these eggs could be marketed at a 
much better profit. The mixing of the inferior eggs with 
the choice ones has a tendency to lower the price of the 
entire lot. That is, white eggs should be marketed as 
white eggs and brown eggs as brown eggs. 

Small cartons or crates for packing one or several 
dozens, bearing the date when the eggs were laid, will 
help to increase the value of the egg sales. People prefer 
to buy a standardized product rather than to take 
chances on old or spoiled eggs. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are school exhibits important? 

2. How would you make preparations for a school exhibit? 

3. Make out a list of the important crops grown in your com¬ 
munity and tell how they should be arranged for the exhibit. 

4. How many ears of com make a sample? 

5. Why is the co-operation of the teacher, pupils, and parents 
necessary in the building up of a good school exhibit? 

6. What is the best method of showing cotton and cotton 
by-products in a school exhibit? 

7. Tell how to collect and arrange forage crops in a school 
display. 

8. Prepare a list of problems to be considered in showing 
small grains. 

9. State several advantages of showing eggs in the school 
exhibit. 

10. Give the standard weight of commercial eggs per dozen. 
What breeds lay the larger eggs? 

11. Discuss the methods of packing and marketing eggs in 
your district. 

12. Of what advantage should a guarantee be in selling eggs? 

13. Give the market prices of eggs in your community. 

14. State the advantages of infertile eggs over fertile eggs for 
marketing. 


32 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


PRACTICAL WORK 

Prepare a school exhibit, representing the best that your school 
and community can produce. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Blotches. Large irregular spots. 

By-product. Additional material aside from the principal 
product. 

Carton. A pasteboard box. 

Checks. Small cracks in the eggs. 

Competition. An attempt to gain something for which another 
is striving. 

Conform. To shape in accordance; to make like. 

Cylindrical. Having the form of a cylinder. 

Exhibit. A collection of articles for making a display or show. 
Fiber. A tough substance composed of thread-like tissue. 
Forage. For example, as the grasses and hay. 

Indentation. The grooves or notches in grains of corn. 

Kernels. A whole grain or seed of a cereal. 

Linters. The cotton removed from cotton seed after ginning. 
Observation. The act of seeing or making conclusions. 

Shank. A portion of the corn stalk which holds the ear. 
Standard. That which is established by custom or general 
consent. 

Yolk. The yellow mass in the center of the egg. 

REFERENCES 

“Farm and Garden Rule Book,” L. H. Bailey, Macmillan, 1914. 
“Productive Farm Crops,” E. G. Montgomery, Lippincott, 1918. 


CHAPTER IV 


FARM EQUIPMENT 

Learn to Do Things.—Farmers do not need to be 
skilled carpenters to make a number of useful articles for 
the farm. It is very easy to construct a number of small 
houses and gates during those winter months when the 
weather does not permit working out in the fields. The 
saving from increased comforts for the young livestock 
and from improved ways of doing things will justify 
learning how to do many things. 

Hog Houses.—A brood sow, at farrowing time, needs 
a house away from the other hogs. Her pigs should not 
be disturbed, and they need a clean place to start to grow 
into strong vigorous hogs. An elaborate hog house is not 
needed in such a warm country as ours, but a simple 
portable house will do very well. The diagram (Fig. 86) 
suggests a very simple plan of making a portable house, 
large enough for one sow and her family. It does not 
take long to make the house, and it will last for a long 
time. 

Shipping crates are not used often, except in handling 
breeding stock, but it is well to know how to make them. 
A simple crate as shown in the illustration (Fig. 21) will 
do very well. It should be made of strong boards, with 
a substantial bottom. The most common size is twenty 
inches wide, three feet four inches high, and four feet 
long. 

Feed Troughs.—Feed troughs are always in demand 
where there are pigs or chickens. They should not be of 

33 


34 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the same size for all kinds of animals. The little pigs and 
chickens need troughs about three or four feet long and 
two or three inches deep, while the older hogs need one 
eight feet long and four or five inches deep. It is well to 
attach long boards at the ends, to prevent upsetting the 
trough. Braces should be placed across the troughs at 
intervals of one foot to prevent the hogs from lying in 
the trough. A cattle feeding trough is much larger than 



Fig. 21.—Shipping crate and unloading chute. 


a hog trough. It is placed upon posts as shown in the 
picture. Hay racks are very useful in saving hay where 
a number of cattle and horses are fed. 

Yards.— Strong fences are needed about barns because 
the farm animals push against these more often 
than they do against other fences. These should 
be made of boards or strong woven wire. It is 
better to have a small lot about the barn, with larger 
yards for hogs and cattle farther back. A very good 
arrangement is shown in tfre illustration. (Fig. 25.) 




FARM EQUIPMENT 


35 


Creeps are little pens built for very young stock, so 
that they may have an opportunity to walk into the 
creep for their feed without being disturbed by the older 
animals. Young pigs soon learn to crawl into a pen 
where a bottom board is off, to eat from a trough or 
feeder, where the mother can not crowd them away. 
Calves will do better if provided a small pen in which 
to learn to eat grain. Colts and young mules need a 



Fig. 22.—Hog troughs, made to prevent the pigs taking advantage of 
each other. 

creep so that they may not be fought away from their 
grain by the larger animals. Fig. 83 suggests a simple 
creep for pigs. 

Poultry Houses vary with the needs of the flock, the 
weather conditions and the resources of the producer. It 
is not necessary to build an elaborate poultry house to 
start the raising of good chickens. A large goods box 
covered with tarred paper is very satisfactory for a be¬ 
ginning with a small number of hens. In fact, it is not 
the best plan to build a large house. An eight by ten 
foot house is the most convenient, and a part of the 
south side is left open for ventilation. 





36 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Fixtures in the hen house should be portable so that 
cleaning may not be difficult. A dropping board, three 
feet wide, eighteen inches from the floor, should be placed 
at the back of the house. Perches are arranged above 
the dropping board. Small boxes may be used for nests. 
These should be placed under the dropping boards in 
order to provide a clean dark place for the laying hens. 
Portable poultry houses are desirable for large farms. 

Brood Coops.—The hen with a newly hatched family 
of chicks should have a house and a small plot of lawn 



Fig. 23.—Cattle-feeding trough. 


where the other poultry may not disturb them. This will 
give the young brood a chance to grow more rapidly, and 
they will not be injured by the feet of larger animals. 
A box brooder, two and one-half feet square, sloping from 
two feet to one foot as shown in the diagram will serve 
the purpose. A portable bottom protects the young 
chicks from cold and moisture. A small door with wire 
netting should be provided. 

Rope Making.—Boys and girls like to make rope 
from binder twine and other kinds of cords. Usually a 



FARM EQUIPMENT 


37 


small amount of this material may be picked up about 
the place and converted into useful ropes or strong cords 
which serve as ties for horses and cattle. The “home¬ 
made” rope is as good as that which may be purchased at 
the store and is less expensive. After studying a few 
simple details regarding the method of making rope, one 
may make rope at school. As soon as a working know¬ 
ledge of this art is gained the work may be carried on at 
home. 





Fig. 24.—A hay feeding rack. 


The Rope Machine. — A piece of lumber, two by four, 
four and one-half feet long will serve as the frame. A 
hole is bored in the center of the frame and one hole on 
each side of this one, at a distance of about four and one- 
half inches. A small piece of board (B, Fig. 30) has 
holes bored in it to correspond to those bored in the 
frame A. 

Three crank-shaped rods C with holes drilled in the 
ends or bent to form an eye, made from an old wagon 
iron, are put through the holes in the frame. The board 




38 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


B is placed over the ends of the rods at the back of the 
frame. By turning this board all the rods turn at the 
same time. Another board D contains three holes one 
inch in diameter, arranged in triangular manner. These 
holes are three and one-half inches apart. A piece of 
rope is fastened to each end of board D and passes 
around the person’s body that holds the twine. 

Setting Up the Machine for Use.—Set two posts 
with smooth sides into the ground so they will not give. 



Fig. 25.—Barnyards well arranged. 


These posts should be close enough together so the ends 
of the frame may be nailed to the post. The best dis¬ 
tance from the ground will be determined by the height 
of the boys or girls. Usually the frame should be about 
waist high to the workers. The cranks and the board for 
turning the cranks is next put into place. The rope, 
fastened to the board containing the three holes for hold¬ 
ing the cord, is then placed around the waist of one boy, 
and he is stationed 25 or 30 feet in front of the machine 
for turning the cords. 







FARM EQUIPMENT 


39 


Measuring the Twine.—For a small trunk rope, 9 
plies of binder twine will be needed. Measure off three 
groups of 3 strands each. Tie them at both ends. Fas¬ 
ten them to the cranks, and pass the ends of the plies 
through the holes in the board that is being held by the 
boy stationed in front of the machine, and tie them to¬ 
gether. The groups of strands should not cross one an¬ 
other and should be straight when viewed from the ma¬ 
chine or holder. 



Fig. 26.—A poultry house that may be constructed at a small cost. 


Making the Rope.—After getting the twine properly 
adjusted for making the rope, begin turning the board 
that holds the cranks, to the right. This will twist the 
strands of twine together. Be careful and do not twist the 
plies so tightly that the grease will run out of the rope 
or kinks will be formed. Frequently examine the plies 
near the board that is held by the boy. As soon as they 
seem to be twisted fairly tight begin taking off the rope. 
This is done by catching hold of the ends of the plies at 
the holding board and twisting to the left. The plies will 








40 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


naturally fall into place and form a rope. A good plan 
is to have two boys hold the board that was held by the 
one boy at the beginning of the work. The boy at the 
machine continues turning the cranks. The boy taking 
off the rope turns the entire rope gently to the left as the 
two boys move gently along toward the machine. An¬ 
other boy may hold the end of the rope to keep it off the 
ground and keep it from kinking. As soon as the rope 



Fig. 27.—Interior of a poultry house. Note the dropping board and nests. 


has been removed ilUlil the machine tie it at both ends. 
Fasten the end that was at the machine to the middle 
crank and hold the other end so it will be taut. Move 
the board that turned the three cranks and turn the 
crank by hand to the left. Tighten on the rope from 
time to time, this causes the plies to be wound tighter. 
Remove the rope from the machine and singe off the 
fiber that may be sticking out, and the rope is completed. 

Use of Concrete.—Foundations, floors, borders, walks, 
posts, water tanks, silos, feeding floors, and roads are 





FARM EQUIPMENT 


41 


being built of concrete. This is almost a concrete age. 
Various materials are used for making concrete. Port¬ 
land cement is the basis of the solidifying element. Sand, 
gravel, crushed stone, and ballast make up the general 
body of a concrete structure. These materials are mixed, 
while the cement is fresh, with water in varying propor¬ 
tions. This mixture should be placed in the mold before 
it has time to “set” or become hard. It is desirable to 



Fig. 28.—A brooder coop and p' chicks. 


pack the concrete well into the form while it is fresh. 
Pounding down with a tamping stick causes the mixture 
to make a uniform mass. 

The strength of concrete varies with the manner of 
making up the cement, stone and water. “Grouting” is 
the term applied to concrete for filling in roads, walks 
or floors. A thin mortar made of two parts sand and one 
part cement, poured over larger rocks and brickbats 
makes a good “grouting.” Foundation concrete is made 





42 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 29.—Rope making. 

A. Making the plies by twisting twine. 

B. Finishing by twisting plies. 








FARM EQUIPMENT 


43 


of gravel, one part; sand, seven parts; and cement, two 
parts. Walks are made from “grouting” covered with a 
fine finish made of one sack of cement to thirty shovels 
of screened sand. Concrete posts, tanks and other things 
requiring a form are better if reinforced with iron. Pieces 
of rods will prevent breaking. The mixture of concrete 
is about the same as that used for foundation work, with 
a little more cement added. It is best to use a large 




Fig. 30.—Rope machine 

E. Holding board for winding plies to- 


A. Frame. 

B. Crank board. 

C. Cranks. 

D. Guide board. 


gether. 

e. Nails for attaching twine. 


amount of water in mixing to insure a uniform product. 
Floors for livestock should not be finished smoothly, 
because that permits slipping. 

Gates.—Our system of farming makes it necessary for 
every farmer to provide good fences about his farm. He 
needs gates to pass "from his fields and lots. It is aggra¬ 
vating to have gates that are sagging or that break every 
time they are pushed by a horse or pig. The best gate is 
made of five strong light boards, ten, twelve, or fourteen 
feet long, with uprights at each end and a diagonal brace, 
supported by two short braces, as illustrated in Fig. 32A. 



44 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


This gate may be hung on hinges or placed upon a slide. 
It cannot sag. 



Fig. 31.—Knots and splices. 


1. Overhand knot. 

2. Granny knot. 

3. Square knot. 

4. Figure-eight knot. 

5. Bell-cord knot. 

6. Clove hitch. 

7. Weavers knot. 

8. Simple slip knot with safety. 

9. Double sheet bend. 

10. Hackamore tie. 

11. Double half-hitch. 

12. Simple halter tie. 

13. Timber hitch. 

14. Ring splice. 

15. Sheep-shank. 

16. Figure eight knot (halter tie). 

17. Cat’s paw knot. 

18. Double bow line knot. 

19. Stop knot. 

20. Double bow knot. 


21. A. Beginning ring splice. 

B. Making ring splice. 

22. A. Small six-strand rope. 

B. Nine strand rope. 

C. Lariat rope. 

23. Homemade halter. 

24. Loose double-bow knot. 

25. A. Beginning thimble splice. 

B. Second stage thimble splice. 

C. Thimble completed. 

26. A. First stage back splicing. 

B. Second stage back splicing. 

C. Back splicing completed. 

27. A. First stage long splice. 

B. Second stage long splice. 

C. Long splice completed. 

28. A. First step mending a broken 

strand. 

B. Broken strand mended. 


QUESTIONS 

1. Name several useful carpentering tools used on the farm. 

2. Why should brood sows have individual houses? 

3. Explain a simple type of portable hog house. 

4. Give the dimensions of shipping crates for hogs. 

5. What kinds of troughs are best for hogs and pigs? 

6. What is a hog creep? State its advantages. 





FARM EQUIPMENT 


45 



7. Give factors to be considered in locating a poultry house. 

8. Draw a floor plan of a simple poultry house. 

9. State the essentials of a poultry house. 

10. Describe a good brood coop. 

11. What are hotbeds and cold frames? 

12. Name the uses of rope. 

13. What are the parts of a rope? 

14. Name twenty kinds of knots. 


Fig. 32. A.—A farm gate that does not sag. 

15. How does long splicing of a rope differ from short splicing? 

16. Name the parts of a rope machine. 

17. What are some of the uses of concrete on the farm? 

18. Explain the term “grouting” as used in walk making. 

19. Where is Portland cement made? 

20. Describe a good farm gate. 

PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: To make rope. 

Materials: Rope machine, binder twine or white cord. 





46 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Ftg. 32 B.— Concrete construction. 

Above, filling in the concrete form for the post. 
Below, a finished corner post. 
















FARM EQUIPMENT 


47 


Procedure: Follow the explanation given for making rope in 
the lesson. 

Results: 1. How is rope made? 

2. What does it cost to make a trunk rope? A lariat rope? 

3. Measure the length of the strands of binder twine at the 
start and compare the length with the length of the finished rope. 
What are the results? 

4. Compare the cost of making rope at home with the same 
grade of rope that may be purchased. 

5. Make a drawing of all the equipment needed in making rope. 

Exercise 2 

If any of the pupils are raising hogs, a small portable hog 
house may be made for use in caring for the hogs. 

Exercise 3 

Prepare some brood coops from old goods boxes and also 
permit the pupils to take them home. 

Exercise 4 

Construct a cold frame and hotbed on the school ground to 
raise plants, such as cabbage, tomatoes, egg plants, etc. 

Exercise 5 

Practice knot-tying and its uses. 

Exercise 6 

Mold some concrete drinking fountains for chickens. Build 
concrete borders for the flower beds. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Ballast. That which has stability, as coarse stone. 

Brood. Young animals cared for by the same mother. 
Concrete. A mixture of cement, water, sand, and gravel which 
hardens into stonelike substance. 

Creep. A small passage for animals to enter a pen. 
Economical. The least expensive method. 

Elaborate. Fancy or worded out with great care. 

Farrowing. Giving birth to young, applied to hogs. 

Grouting. Coarse stone and cement used for filling. 

Guide Board. A board to guide the strands in making rope. 
Mold. A hollow form for shaping objects. 

Portable. That which may be moved or taken apart. 


48 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Portland Cement. A commercial cement used in concrete¬ 
making. It was first made in Portland, England. 

Reenforced. Strengthening iron or steel supports in concrete. 
Slide. A running bar for a gate. 

Solidifying. Making solid. 

Splicing. To unite by interweaving. 

Triangular. An object having three sides shaped like a tri¬ 
angle. 

REFERENCES 

“Making Things,” P. G. Holden & C. M. Carroll, International 
Harvester Co. 

“Productive Poultry Husbandry,” Harry R. Lewis, Lippincott, 
1921. 

“Handy Farm Mechanics,” Rolfe Colbeigh, Orange Judd, 1914. 


CHAPTER V 


THE FARM ORCHARD 

Why We Need More Fruit.—Food experts recom¬ 
mend that a large amount of the human diet be com¬ 
posed of fruits. Very few people fail to enjoy eating 
a ripe peach or a dish of strawberries with cream. The 
best way for farmers to obtain these luxuries is to plant 
orchards that will grow them. If the fruit is to be pur¬ 
chased, there is seldom a sufficient supply for the family. 
It is indeed a pleasure to pluck ripe peaches or plums 
from the tree. These forms of “preserved sunshine” 
not only supply the needs of the summer time, but they 
are a source of well preserved jams and jellies for the 
winter. “It never rains roses, if we want more roses, 
we must plant more bushes,” a famous writer has re¬ 
marked. The same is true of fruit production. These 
and bushes must be planted and cultivated to obtain 
luscious harvest. After we have planted the trees, there 
is a long period of care and cultivation before the or¬ 
chard bears fruit. While there may be a great many 
things to require the attention of farmers, the orchard, 
has a very important place. The time and energy con¬ 
sumed will be well rewarded in later years. 

Location of the Home Orchard.—We usually want 
the orchard as near the home as possible. It is desirable 
to have a gentle slope, well drained, but not so abrupt 
as to allow washing. The south slope is more desirable, 

49 


50 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


on account of the sunshine and the prevention of cold 
winds. The soil does not determine the quality or the 
amount of fruit grown so much as the care given, but 
for general purposes a rich loam will produce the most 
fruit. Strawberries and grapes do well on light soils, 
apples and pears on clay loam, plums and cherries on 
medium loam, apricots and peaches on light sandy loam. 

Source of Orchard Stock. —Reliable nurseries, ex¬ 
perienced fruit growers in the community, and the farm- 



Fig. 33.—An orchard with a gentle slope. 


er’s own growing of fruit from seeds may provide a sup¬ 
ply of material for planting the orchard. The nearest 
nursery, whose product is true to variety, is perhaps the 
best source of fruit trees. The advantages of buying 
from a local nursery are that you may visit the nursery 
and see what is being produced; freight charges are 
saved; the trees are better adapted to your environment. 
Small fruits and vines which develop from “runners” 
may be secured from neighbors or produced at home. 

Selection of Varieties. —The varieties which have 
been tried in a community and have been found sue- 



THE FARM ORCHARD 


51 


cessful are the best kinds to select. The fruits which 
the family likes best are always to be given preference. 
In addition to high yielding varieties, it is well to select 
those which produce in succession. Early, medium and 
late varieties of peaches and apples furnish fruit over 
a long period. The same is true with strawberries and 
cherries. 

The following varieties of fruits may be successfully 
grown in the South: 


APPLES 

1. Red June. 

2. Yellow Transparent. 

3. San Jacinto. 

4. Grimes Golden. 

5. Jonathan. 

PEACHES 

1. Togo. 

2. Early Crawford. 

3. Mamie Ross. 

4. Elberta. 

5. Indian Cling. 

APRICOTS 

1. Early Golden. 

2. Lampasas. 

BLACKBERRIES 

1. Dallas. 

2. Macdonald. 

3. Robinson. 

STRAWBERRIES 

1. Lady Thompson. 

2. Klondike. 

3. Aroma. 

4. Dunlap. 

5. Ever Bearing. 


PEARS 

1. Dwarf Bartlett. 

2. Garber. 

3. Keiffer. 

PLUMS 

1. Red June. 

2. Burbank. 

3. Wild Goose. 

4. Golden Beauty. 

5. Abundance. 

GRAPES 

1. Moore’s Early. 

2. Concord. 

3. R. W. Munson. 

DEWBERRIES 

1. Austin. 

2. Rogers. 

PECANS 

1. Stuart. 

2. Schley. 

3. Delmas. 

PERSIMMONS 

1. Yemon. 

2. Mino. 


52 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 34.—A reliable nursery. General scene above and office below. 















THE FARM ORCHARD 


53 


“Heeling-in.”— Nursery stock is packed in moss and 
straw. The box should be opened, and if the trees are 
not planted at once, the bundles should be “heeled-in” 
out of doors, by covering with earth. A trench is dug, 
the moss or packing is removed from the bundles, and 
the trees are set vertically in the trench. After moisten¬ 
ing, earth is packed about the trees. 



Fig. 35.—Small fruits, strawberries and blackberries. 


Planning an Orchard. —Tree fruits, in order to ob¬ 
tain the largest production, should be planted separ¬ 
ately. The small fruits are more convenient when lo¬ 
cated near the garden. The check system enables the 
grower to cultivate more thoroughly and economically. 
Apples, for a soil of ordinary fertility, should be planted 
in checks thirty feet by thirty feet, peaches twenty 
by twenty, plums, cherries and apricots eighteen by 
eighteen feet, grapes in nine-foot rows, eight feet apart, 
blackberries in eight-foot rows, two feet apart in the 







54 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

row, dewberries six feet apart, and three feet in the row, 
strawberries, thickly in small beds and in wider rows 
for larger fields. 

Planting. —An orchard produces better for a longer 
period of time, if it is first plowed very deeply or sub¬ 
soiled, before planting. The locations of the trees should 
be established by marking the orchard into squares with 


Fig. 36 .—Planting a tree. The hole is dug larger and deeper than is needed 
for the tree. The space is filled with rich earth. 

a string or wire. The holes in which the trees are 
planted should be large enough to accommodate the 
roots without bending them, and deep enough so that 
some loose soil may be put into the bottom before set¬ 
ting the tree. The tree should be set slightly deeper 
than it was in the nursery. Care should be taken, 
not expose the “heeled-in” plants to the air and sun¬ 
shine until they are ready to be placed in the ground. 
An hour of exposure may kill the young roots. “Heel¬ 
ing-in” near the place of planting will protect them 




THE FARM ORCHARD 


55 


until they are set. The month of November is rec¬ 
ommended as the best month for planting fruit trees 
in the South. Farther north, the month of March is 
the most favorable. 

Before placing into the hole, broken or dead roots 
should be removed with a sharp knife from the tree. 
The roots should be spread naturally with the soil 
carefully worked in around them. The trunk of the tree 
stands in a vertical position. When the hole is half 
full of earth, it is tamped or pressed down. Com¬ 
plete the filling, packing the soil until even with the 
surface. A little loose earth should be heaped about 
the trunk to keep away the mice and rabbits. Cut 
back the top, for apples, until the tree is about two 
feet high, for peaches, plums, and apricots, until they 
are about eighteen inches high. Nursery tags injure 
the tree and ought to be removed at the time of plant¬ 
ing. 

Cultivation. —The time to begin cultivation is soon 
after the orchard is planted. If the soil is pulverized 
and free from weeds, deep cultivation will not be needed. 
By keeping the soil loose about each tree, moisture will 
be conserved. Implements have been designed to pro¬ 
vide thorough cultivation. A very common method 
of cultivation is with a one-horse cultivator; care should 
be taken to avoid injuring young trees. If no crops 
are grown in the orchard, frequent harrowing or disk¬ 
ing is advisable. The application of mulches and fertil¬ 
izers aid greatly in securing a vigorous growth. Poor 
soils may require a straw mulch about each tree. 
Chickens often aid in cultivating an orchard by de¬ 
stroying insects and by scratching. Shallow cultiva¬ 
tion is more profitable than very deep plowing after 


56 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

the trees have been planted. Cross cultivation is de¬ 
sirable, because a continual turning of the earth in one 
direction will build ridges. 

If a crop is to be grown in the orchard, a cultivated 
crop is the best, because it provides some animal feed 
and may be the means of keeping down weeds. Cow- 
peas, soy beans, or peanuts planted in rows, provide 



Fig. 37.—Cultivating an orchard. 

excellent orchard crons. They are not so large as to sap 
the soil, the roots provide nitrogen, and some hay or 
feed may be harvested. T+ 

Pruning Fruit Trees is the process of removing 
branches and twigs. Old orchards provide excellent 
material for learning the best methods of pruning. By 
carefully removing dead limbs from the tree, fungous dis¬ 
eases are prevented from spreading. There is a tend¬ 
ency of trees to become crowded and thickly branched 











THE FARM ORCHARD 


57 


at the top. The light is prevented from reaching the 
lower parts of the tree, and less fruit is produced. 
Pruning thins these tops. Branches of trees vary in 
productiveness. Some grow nothing but wood, others 
bear fruit. By selecting those branches which bear 
fruit, the yield may be greatly increased. In growing, 



Fig. 38 —Pruning young trees. . ■ 

That on the left is a seedling unpruned. The tree in the center is pruned 
ready for planting. The tree on the right is marked with a piece of chalk 
where it is to be pruned. 


many branches overlap and prevent fruitful branches 
from developing normally. Careful pruning will remove 
competing branches, allowing the desirable ones to 
grow. Undesirable woody growths are removed in 
pruning, as water sprouts and fruitless branches. The 
importance of pruning may be summarized as, (1) Pre¬ 
venting diseases, (2) Permitting light to enter, (3) Se¬ 
lection of fruiting branches, (4) Preventing unneces- 








58 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


sary competition, (5) Removing excessive woody 
growths, (6) Preventing old orchards. 

The Time to Prune varies with the kinds of fruit 
grown. Early training of fruit trees is important. After 
young trees have been growing in the orchard for one 
year, it is important to begin to train the top in the way 
it should grow. Main branches are selected, alternat¬ 
ing about the trunk of the tree; other branches will de¬ 
velop from these during the next year. Branches are 
often “trained” by pinching buds, to prevent the growth 
of watersprouts. The tops of trees may be kept low 
by this pinching process. This is especially desirable 
in large commercial orchards. 

Pruning involves the making of neat cuts in removing 
branches. Tools should be sharp so that the green bark 
layer may not be torn. A clean sloping cut insures 
prompt healing of the wounds. Large branches should 
first be notched by sawing from the underside. Then 
cut the limb, leaving enough branch to insure healing 
without injuring the tree. Paint should be applied to 
large wounds, to prevent rotting of the heart wood. 
Very late pruning may injure trees, and experienced 
fruit growers practice a system of pruning at various 
times in the year. 

The needs and likes of the grower determine to a 
large extent the time and amount of pruning. Each 
kind of tree demands a different type of training. It is 
generally considered advisable to prune during the dor¬ 
mant season for the heavy cuttings. Small growths are 
removed at any time. 

Control of Disease.—The best way to prevent dis¬ 
eases of fruit trees is to avoid a start of the infection. 
Strong, vigorous trees of resistant varieties should be se- 


THE FARM ORCHARD 


59 


lected for planting. Proper cultivation and an abund¬ 
ance of soil fertility will enable the tree to resist many 
diseases. Keeping the orchard clean, and the removal 
of dead or diseased wood will prevent much infection. 
Spraying with various chemicals at the proper time 
will destroy most of the diseases. 

Handling the Fruit Crop.— The primary object of 
most people is to raise sufficient fruits of all kinds for 
home use. After this has been canned or stored the 
surplus may be marketed locally at the stores, shipped 
to large wholesale fruit companies, or sold along with 
that of neighboring growers. The last method involves 
the growing of standard varieties in a community so that 
carload lots may be shipped at one time. Some farm¬ 
ers sell fruit on the tree to people who have the means 
of taking care of it. 


QUESTIONS 

1. Why is a good family orchard important? 

2. What kind of site and soil is best for fruit production? 

3. Give three sources of trees and small fruits. 

4. Explain the term environment in relation to fruit growing. 

5. What factors should be considered in selecting the varieties 
of fruit for the orchard? 

6. Name the kinds and varieties of fruit produced in your 
section. 

7. Tell how to “heel-in” fruit trees. 

8. How should tree fruits and small fruits be arranged on the 
home grounds? 

9. State the proper distances for planting fruit trees and 
berries. 

10. Explain the preparation of soil for planting orchards. 

11. When and how are fruit trees planted? 

12. Discuss the proper cultivation for the orchard. 

13. How may diseases and insect pests be controlled? 

14. Suggest methods of handling fruit in the home orchard. 


60 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: To plant trees on the school ground. 

Materials: Shovel, spade, knife or pruning shears, saw, and 
trees. 

Procedure: Select places for planting the trees. Make exca¬ 
vations for the planting. Have rich garden soil. Plant trees 
according to directions given in the lesson. Fill in around the 
tree with garden soil. Water the roots. 

Results: Make a written report of trees planted. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To renovate an old orchard. 

Materials: An old orchard, saws, sharp axe, hatchet, paint, 
shovel, and pruning shears. 

Procedure: Go over the orchard, observing the age and desira¬ 
bility of the trees. Remove worthless trees. Cut off dead 
branches and burn them. Take out branches which are crossed, 
twisted. Paint surfaces where large limbs are removed. 

Results: Visit occasionally and observe the benefits from 
pruning. 

Exercise 3 

Object: To learn varieties of apples. 

Materials: Six kinds of ripe apples, notebook, standard color 
charts of fruit from a nursery. 

Procedure: Study the apples, noting the shape, size, and 
color. Find out the names of the apples. After learning the 
names of the apples, mix the different kinds of apples to see 
whether you can pick out the varieties. Cut the apples open and 
observe the different appearances of the seeds and the texture 
of the fruit. 

Results: Try to decide what apples are best to eat. What 
varieties of apples are best suited for the community? 

Exercise 4 

Arrange with your county agricultural agent for a demonstra¬ 
tion of budding and grafting fruit trees. 


THE FARM ORCHARD 


61 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Abrupt. Sudden, changing. 

Alternate. To vary or to change by terms. 

Chemicals. Materials used in spraying fruit trees. 

Cuttings. A severed portion of a plant used for propagation. 
Disease. Injury caused by parasites. 

Dormant. Inactive or at rest. In plants not growing. 
Environment. Surrounding conditions and affecting life. 
Factors. Some agency or influence producing a result. 

Fungous. Pertaining to a fungus which is a parasitic plant 
growth. 

Injection. That which causes disease. 

Loam. Earthy matter composed of clay and sand. 

Mulch. Substances spread upon the ground to protect plants 
from heat, cold, or drought. 

Nitrogen. A chemical element used for plant food. 

Nursery. A place where trees, shrubs and vines are propa¬ 
gated. 

Rejuvenating. To make young again. 

Runner. A flat-lying branch with roots at the end. 

Site. The place where the orchard is located. 

Subsoiled. To tear up the layer of soil which underlies the 
surface soil. 

Tamp. Packing the soil. 

Vertically. Standing erect. 

“Water-sprout.” Growth of a woody branch in an unusual 
place. 

REFERENCES 

“Information for Fruit Growers/’ U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 908. 

“Productive Orcharding,” Fred C. Sears, Lippincotts, 1917. 
“Productive Small Fruit Culture,” Fred C. Sears, Lippincott, 1920. 


CHAPTER VI 


GROWING TREES 

What is a Forest? —A heavily wooded area, a tract 
of timberland with its varied growth of vegetation, a 
highly organized portion of the vegetable kingdom are 
expressions describing a forest. With the exception of 
mountainous sections and a few waste tracts, the great 
forest areas have disappeared in the path of agricultural 
progress. 

The present ideas of forestry are limited to the plant¬ 
ing and growing of trees in woodlots. Our science of 
forestry, as applied to the farm does not extend to the 
great preserves, but is limited to the woodlot and the 
groves about our homes. The name Arboriculture, 
meaning the cultivation of individual trees, applies more 
to our present study. 

Need of Forests.— Have you noticed the washed and 
deeply grooved appearance of barren hillsides and sloping 
fields? The heavy rains have fallen upon these fields for 
a number of years, carrying away the soil, leaving the 
land rough and untillable. The torrent of water rushing 
down to the valleys causes streams to be flooded and 
great waste of soil fertility. Since hillside land soon be¬ 
comes worthless, it is quite important that these fields 
should be replanted with trees which will prevent wash¬ 
ing and retain the moisture. 

Reforesting. —There are thousands of square miles 
of waste land in the South that were once covered with 


62 


GROWING TREES 


63 



valuable pine forests. The removal of the timber has 
given room for a dense growth of small evergreens. 
When these become very dense, fires often burn over 
great areas, leaving a barren waste of sand and stumps. 
By proper care in thinning and by preventing fires, a 
new growth may be obtained. The United States Bureau 
of Forestry has furnished valuable aid in starting new 
growths upon barren tracts and in protecting growths 


Fig. 39.—Washed lands in the foreground; that in the background is held in 
place by small trees. 

from fires. It is quite evident that sandy land will fur¬ 
nish greater profits if planted with trees than for farm 
crops. 

Are homes without trees attractive? Does the tree¬ 
less place appeal to you? The protection furnished by 
trees is worth much. A windbreak of a few rows of trees 
may be of much value during wind storms. The hot sun 
of summer is not nearly so disagreeable if we have a 
well shaded lawn. 




64 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Two or three acres of woodlot containing the proper 
varieties not only provide protection and beauty, but 



Fig. 40.—A prairie home that has little to attract young people. 



Fig. 41.—A shaded home. 

much post timber and firewood may be produced. It is a 
matter of economy to have a windbreak for the orchard. 

A grove of pecans will not only provide shade for the 
home but will produce many valuable edible nuts. 







GROWING TREES 


65 


The Tree.—Since the trees are the units making up 
the woodlot, it is well to have an understanding of the 
nature of trees. A tree is a woody plant growing up 
from the ground, usually with a single stem. The three 
parts of a tree are the stump, trunk, and top. 

The Stump of a tree is the base to which the roots 
are attached. It has been suggested that there is as much 
of the tree below the ground as there is above. A tree, 
two feet in diameter, has a root system, that if all the 



Fig, 42.—Parts of a tree. 

A. Stump. B. Trunk. C. Top. 


roots were placed in a continuous line, they would extend 
several miles. These not only anchor the tree, preventing 
its blowing over during storms, but they collect food 
from a large amount of soil. 

The Trunk of a tree is the stem or portion from the 
roots and stump to the first branches. The length of the 
trunk varies greatly with the kinds of trees and the con¬ 
ditions under which the tree has grown. Where the trees 
are closely grouped, they grow tall and the first branches 
are high up. Out in the open places the trees spread with 




66 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


low branches. Thus if we desire long straight trunks for 
making boards and posts, it is desirable to have them 
growing in a close group or in woodlots. 

There are two distinct portions of the trunk in most 
trees, heartwood and sapwood. The portions are not 
very well marked in the holly, cypress, cottonwood, and 



others. The heartwood has a darker color and is used 
for making furniture and finished wood products. The 
sapwood is the growing portion on the outside of the tree. 
It is made of sap tubes, carrying water and soluble foods 
for the tree. 

Some valuable products come from this sap layer; as 






GROWING TREES 67 

turpentine from the pine, rubber from the rubber tree, 
and maple sugar from the maple tree. 

When a tree is cut down, a number of rings may be 
noticed across the stump. These are the annual rings, 
formed by periods of growth, each ring usually rep¬ 
resenting one year of growth. 

The Top of the tree is not so useful to man, but it 
is absolutely necessary for the tree. Those thousands of 



Fig. 44.—A spreading oak in the open country. 


leaves borne upon the oak are breathing organs. They 
take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. The green 
coloring matter, while the sun is shining, combines the 
carbon dioxide with water, making starches and sugars. 
Most of the food of a growing tree is manufactured in the 
leaves. 

Kinds of Trees.—Native trees found in many wood- 
lots are often of little value to the farmer. Most of the 
oaks may be used for making fence posts, but the Bois 





68 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

d’arc or Osage orange lasts much longer. We think of 
trees as requiring a very long time to grow from seeds. 
It is true that twenty years seems long to wait for trees 
to develop. That is all the more a reason for young 
people to become interested in planting trees. As our 
small woodlots become thin, trees may be planted which 
will greatly improve the quality of the timber. 


Fig. 45.—The sections of the log show dark heart wood and light sapwood. 

The fertility of the soil, the amount of water available, 
and the climate or temperature necessarily determine the 
kinds of trees grown. Cypress, sycamores, willows, and 
cottonwoods grow best along streams. Oaks, elms, and 
gums do better in rich soil a little higher than that 
suited to willows. Pines are usually adapted to higher 
altitudes or to shady coastal plains. 




GROWING TREES 


69 


However, for planting about our homes, there are other 
trees which grow more rapidly and furnish more durable 
wood. The Bois d’arc or Osage orange grows rather 
rapidly in most places. 

Locust seeds Or roots may be used for propagating a 
rapidly growing grove. The roots of the locust develop 
nitrogen nodules, much the same as clover or alfalfa, 
and actually enrich the soil. Locust post and railroad- 
tie timber is valuable. Nothing is more pleasing about 
a home than a row of locust trees covered with fragrant 
blossoms. 



Fig. 46 a.—Reforested wood lot. 

The Bois d’arc and locusts contain chemicals which 
prevent to some extent the entrance of insects and fungi 
which cause the decay of timbers. 

Lumber, including boards, beams and sawed timber, is 
produced mostly in those sections where there is a heavy 
growth of native- forests. We consider pines, spruce, 
hemlock, and other evergreens as soft woods. Pine trees 
are the source of most “soft” lumber. Such trees as oak, 
elm, maple, ash, walnut, gum, and sycamore are “hard¬ 
wood.” 








70 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The great problem is how to preserve the great forests 
so that the supply may not be exhausted. The Bureau of 
Forestry of the United States Department of Agriculture 
has done much to solve the problems of forestry. 

Uses.—Furniture and finishing lumber are most com¬ 
monly made from oak, walnut, or maple. Elm and gum 
are used for making baskets, boxes, and crates. Syca¬ 
more, ash, and holly provide wood for frames and 



Fig. 46 b.—A row of locust trees. 


handles. Cottonwood may provide a fair grade of lum¬ 
ber for crating and inside work. It is often used along 
with linden and other spongy woods for making paper. 

The average farm woodlot, if planted by hand, will 
probably be more satisfactory if Bois d’arc, locust or 
mulberry are planted closely. These grow rather rapidly, 
and the trees may be thinned as they become large 
enough for posts. 

Location.—Such a woodlot may be located so that 
it will prevent the blowing of sand, protect livestock and 
provide shade. 




GROWING TREES 


71 


Collecting.—It should be of interest to pupils to col¬ 
lect samples of different kinds of woods near the home 
or school. By using a saw, sections, six or eight inches 
long, may be cut from limbs two inches in diameter. 
These samples may be cut at an angle on one end as 
shown in the diagram. 

A study of the grain and texture of the wood may be 
made. White oak, black oak, post oak, red oak, syca- 



Fig. 47.—Wood samples sawed to show the grain. 


more, red maple, silver maple, elm, black gum, sweet 
gum, hickory, pecan, walnut, locust, willow, cedar, cot¬ 
tonwood, Bois d’arc, dogwood, holly, sassafras, ironwood, 
linden, pine, ash, and honey locust are found in many 
communities. Such a collection provides an interesting 
study in the differences of hardness and softness of our 
native woods. A leaf mount of the trees of the com¬ 
munity will aid in learning the kinds of trees. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is forestry? 

2. Explain arboriculture. 




72 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


3. State the needs for forests. 

4. What are the parts of a tree? 

5. Name several products obtained from the trunk of a tree. 

6. Prepare a list of the timber trees and the shade trees grown 
in your community. 



Fig. 48.—Leaves mounted to show the different types. 


7. Name trees used for fence posts. 

8. What trees are used for hardwood lumber, softwood lumber 
and dye? 

9. Discuss the importance of a farm woodlot. 

10. Suggest the best methods of handling a timber crop to 
avoid waste. 









GROWING TREES 


73 


PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To become familiar with trees. 

Material: Saw, axe, hatchet, and branches of trees. 

Procedure: Cut short pieces of branches, about eight inches 
long from representative trees. Branches from two to four inches 
in diameter should be selected. These should be sawed to show 
an angle of the wood. The collection may be taken to school, 
labeled, and placed in a case for future study. The samples may 
be fastened to boards and nailed to the wall. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To learn the kinds' of trees near your school. 

Material: Notebook and pencil. 

Procedure: Visit a park or forest and list as many kinds of 
trees as you can. Note the differences in branches and in leaves. 
If you cannot name the trees, ask some older person who is 
familiar with trees. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Anchor. To fix in a stable condition. 

Annular. Thickened layers of rings about a tree. 

Carbon dioxide. A heavy colorless gas made from one part 
of carbon and two parts of oxygen. 

Deciduous. Leaves falling at the end of the growing period. 

Evergreen. Retaining leaves throughout the year. 

Grain. The arrangement of fibers in wood. 

Grove. A smaller group of trees than a forest without under¬ 
growth. 

Mount. To put upon anything that sustains or fits for use. 

Nodules. A little lump or knot formed upon the roots of 
legumes. 

Oxygen. A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas making up about 
one-fifth the air we breathe. 

Preserve. A place where timber is grown and cared for, for 
future use. 

Soluble. That which may be dissolved in a fluid. 

Texture. The coarseness or fineness of wood particles. 

Torrent. A violent rapid flow of water. 


74 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


REFERENCES 

“Woodman’s Handbook,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Forestry BuL 86. 
“Windbreaks,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Forestry Bui., 86. 

“Street Trees,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui., 360. 

“Forest Nurseries for School,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui., 
423. 

“Forest Planting and Farm Management,” U. S. Dept of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui., 228. 


CHAPTER VII 


CATTLE 

Beef Cattle Gain While You Sleep.—Diversified 
farming implies the development of a number of differ¬ 
ent sources of income. Upon larger farms where help is 
scarce and a large amount of feed is produced, it is often 
profitable to raise beef cattle. With plenty of pasture 
and a good supply of corn, one man can do much with 
beef cattle and hogs. They grow while he does other 
work, they supply a substantial profit and turn much 
waste roughage into money. It requires much work to 
handle dairy products and poultry. Cows must be 
milked, the milk cared for and marketed, along with 
a great amount of cleaning utensils. The same is true 
of marketing eggs and raising chicks. A large number 
of people are required to do such work, and a conveni¬ 
ent market is necessary. The beef cattle industry will 
appeal to those farmers who have a large acreage avail¬ 
able for pasture and very little assistance in handling 
it. Southern conditions are generally well adapted for 
the economic growth of beef cattle. Land and breed¬ 
ing stock are comparatively cheap. Barns are not 
needed, with the possible exception of sheds. Grass 
grows nearly all the year. 

Breeds. — The American beef cattle are limited almost 
entirely to four breeds and those known as dual-pur¬ 
pose. A beef animal is considered in the meat produc¬ 
ing industry as one whose structure and body confor- 
75 


76 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

mation is primarily for providing beef. The ideal type is 
one with short legs, heavy, well-developed hind quarters, 
a wide, thickly muscled back and a short neck. 

Shorthorns.— Red, white and roan cattle have been 
favorities in the beef producing countries longer than 
any other of our standard breeds. They were first called 



Fig. 49.—A grand champion Shorthorn cow. Lovely Thaxton 2nd. 


Shorthorns, in contrast to the old Longhorns of Eng¬ 
land. They not only have the square bodies of good 
beef animals, but many of the cows are good milk pro¬ 
ducers. One strain has developed into what we know 
as the milking Shorthorn. Others have lost their horns 
and are known as Polled Shorthorns or Polled Dur- 
hams. These cattle have all come from the original 
stock in England. For the amount of feed eaten, these 
cattle probably gain more pounds than any other breed. 

Herefords.—Cattle ranches of the South and West are 
seldom found without a number of white-faced cat- 



CATTLE 


77 



tie. They are large animals, with white heads and mark¬ 
ings on their legs and bodies. Herefords have unusual 
vigor and ability to rustle food. Their temperament 
makes them an ideal grazing cattle. They can do well 
with short grass pastures where the other breeds would 
nearly starve. White-faced cattle are also easily fat¬ 
tened in the feed log. Purebred Herefords cross well 
with native cattle and improve the quality of feeders. 


Fig. 50.—A milking Shorthorn. 

Polled Herefords, or “muleys” have developed among 
purebreds during the past few years. These cattle have 
the good qualities of their horned ancestors. 

Aberdeen Angus.—Due to their shortness and plump, 
sleek appearance, the Scotch have called their black 
polled cattle “Doddies.” The names Aberdeen and 
Angus refers to the counties in Scotland from which 
these cattle originally came. We usually speak of them 
as the Angus. Due to their short, stocky frames, these 
cattle are easily fed out into prime beef. In fat stock 
shows, the Angus have excelled all other breeds. Their 





78 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

smoothness and uniformity appeal to cattlemen and 
butchers. The early maturity of the Angus is a great 
advantage in this day of “baby beef” production. 

Galloways are also a black, polled cattle from Scot¬ 
land. Because of long hair, they are not suited to a 
warm country. 

Red Polled cattle are a “dual-purpose” breed, giving 
milk and furnishing beef. They are not as large as the 



Fig. 51.—A Hereford, Brae Repeater, owned by the Oklahoma A. & M. College. 


beef breeds. They are hardy, gentle and a fairly good 
grazing animal. 

Feeding.—The great problem in beef production is 
not so much the breed of cattle as the manner in which 
they are fed. Any animal, representing a predominant 
beef type, will feed out into a marketable beef, if given 
the proper care. Our object is to produce the largest 
amount of desirable beef at the lowest cost per pound. 

For the farmer, with only a few high-grade cows, the 
production of “baby beef’’ is perhaps the most profitable. 





CATTLE 


79 


By “baby beef” we mean calves, grown rapidly and fat¬ 
tened before they are one year of age. A well-bred calf 
will weigh seven or eight hundred pounds when he is 
ten months old, if he is given all that he can eat from 
the time he is old enough to take other food than his 
mother’s milk. Such beef is very tender and commands 
a high price. As soon as the calf begins to take all the 
milk from his mother, a small box should be fixed so that 



Fig. 52. —A champion Aberdeen Angus cow. Pride Protest 6th. 


he may begin to nibble at some mixed feed. This may 
consist of bran or ground oats and corn with a little 
cottonseed meal. With the mother’s milk, a good sup¬ 
ply of grass or hay, and a quantity of ground feed, the 
calf will develop into a prime “baby beef” within a few 
months. 

A large amount of the American beef supply comes 
from the range cattle which are fattened in grain-grow¬ 
ing sections. Grass-fed calves are shipped to our cen- 





80 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


tral markets, and those ready for the butcher are sold 
to the packers. The poor ones are shipped out to farms 
where there is a supply of feed to finish them for the 
return to the market. Farmers usually buy a carload 
of “feeders” at a time when their pasture and grain is 
the most abundant. These cattle should be of a uni¬ 
form size, representing a high grade of our beef breeds. 
Young cattle usually insure a greater profit, because 
they grow while gaining weight. 



Fig. 53.— A Galloway cow. Charlotte of M. L. 


It has been shown that a small amount of grain and 
cottonseed meal fed while the cattle have good pasture, 
produces the cheapest gains. Summer feeding is becom¬ 
ing more popular. A heavy grain feed is expensive 
and does not make more rapid gains than feeding with 
pasture. 




CATTLE 81 

A few brief guides to profitable beef production are 
given below: 

Good pastures are essential for profitable beef pro¬ 
duction. 

Use coarse fodders, straws, and the stalk fields for 
wintering the breeding herd. 

Raise and finish cattle on the same farm when 
possible. 



Fid. 54—A Red Polled bull. 


Silage is the best roughage for fattening any class 
of cattle. 

More care is necessary in feeding calves than in feed¬ 
ing matured animals. 

Finishing cattle early in the summer is usually more 
profitable than finishing them later in the season. 

Thin steers when put on pasture make larger and 
cheaper daily gains than fleshy ones. 










82 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The use of a small amount of corn in addition to cot¬ 
ton seed meal has proven profitable for feeding steers 
on grass. 

Dairy Cattle.—The dairy cow is one of our most use¬ 
ful and profitable farm animals. She has the ability 
to take the grains of the fields. and rough cheap feeds 
of our pasture lands and convert them into the most 
nourishing forms of human food. Through her our 
tables are supplied with milk, butter and cheese; her 



Fig. 55.—A baby beef winner. 

calves furnish most of our veal; we sell her offspring for 
breeding stock; and we return the manure to our soils 
to improve the farm land. 

Food experts are advising children and adults to 
drink more milk and eat more butter and cheese. These 
are the best and most economical forms of food. Why 
not try a few good dairy cows on the farm as a side 
line or keep a good cow for home use? 

Breeds.—Five major breeds of dairy cattle are recog¬ 
nized by the leading dairy men of the United States. 
While all the breeds are similar in type and general 
dairy tendencies, each breed has its special merits and 










CATTLE 


83 


demerits. In general appearance, the ideal dairy cow 
shows a greater depth of body at the rear than at the 
front. The hind legs should be wide apart to give a 
place for a well formed udder. The distance between 
the points of the hip bones and the distance between 
the pin bones should be wide apart. The animals should 
be free from fatty tissue, the skin soft and pliable, the 
neck long, the ribs well sprung, eyes prominent, well 
shaped head, flanks thin, and she should be alert and 
healthy. 



Fig. 56.—A good type of feeder. 


Jerseys.—Jerseys are one of the most popular breeds 
of dairy cattle in the South. They are noted for their 
heavy butter production and good milk yield with a 
fine yellow color. The fat globules are large, which 
makes the milk churn easily. This wins favor with 
the housewife who keeps a cow for family use. This 
breed of cattle originated on the Island of Jersey, a 
small island eleven miles long and nine miles wide, 
in the English Channel. The natives of the island have 
bred their cattle for more than two hundred years with¬ 
out introducing new blood. 



84 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


The Jerseys are the smallest, neatest, and the most 
beautiful in form of the dairy breeds. The cows weigh 
from 700 to 1300 pounds and the bulls from 1200 to 
1600 pounds. The calves are small at birth and ma¬ 
ture very rapidly. 

The solid colored Jerseys showing various shades of 
fawn, mouse color, squirrel gray, and very dark brown 
are preferred by breeders to those having white mixed 
with the colors named. The animals should have a 



Fig. 57.—An ideal Jersey. Note the large udder and milk veins. 


black tongue, a light ring around the muzzle, and a 
black switch on the tail. 

Jerseys are especially adapted to farms where butter- 
fat is sold and to small lots where the animals must 
be closely confined. 

Holstein-Friesian Cattle.—The large black and white 
dairy cattle that we see at our fairs and on many of 
the dairy farms of our country originated in Holland. 
The environment of Holland is well suited to cattle 



CATTLE 


85 



raising, and the thrifty Dutch farmers who tilled rich 
lands which were well drained, produced abundant grass 
crops for feeding their animals. They selected, bred, 
and cared for their cattle so carefully that they de¬ 
veloped a breed of animals that are the largest in size of 
any dairy breed, and are known as the greatest producers 
of milk. The Holstein cows weigh on an average of 
1200 pounds and the bulls 1700 to 2000 pounds. The 


Fig. 58— A Holstein-Friesian cow. She has great capacity for milk production. 

milk of this breed of cattle ranks low in the percent of 
butter fat. 

The Holsteins are rough, hardy, gentle animals that 
can use a great amount of hay and forage in their ration. 
The calves are large at birth and make excellent veal. 

Guernseys. —The native home of the Guernsey cattle 
is the little island of Guernsey in the English Chan¬ 
nel. History tells us that the ancestors of this breed, 
and the Jerseys were probably the same, but the cattle 
raisers of Guernsey did not select their animals ac- 









86 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


cording to type as carefully as did the people of Jersey. 

In size the Guernseys may be classed as a medium 
breed, the cows weighing about 1050 pounds and the 
bulls 1500 pounds when matured. They vary in color 
from yellow fawn to brown fawn. Some are marked 
with white spots which are generally located on the under 
parts of the body and legs. The nose should be flesh 
colored and the horns yellow and the hoofs amber color. 



Fig. 59.—A Jersey of quality. 


The Guernseys are little coarser in conformation than 
the Jerseys and are good grazers on rough pastures. 

Ayrshires were first produced in Scotland, in the 
County of Ayr, from which they take their name. The 
surface of the country is rolling and stony and the pas¬ 
tures are sparse. In order to obtain their food they were 
forced to graze over a large territory which resulted 
in developing animals of considerable strength and 
vitality. 




CATTLE 


87 


Ayrshire cattle are of medium size, the cows weighing 
on an average of 1150 pounds and the bulls about 1800 
pounds. Animals almost white with red or brown spots 
on the head and neck are most desirable. In Scotland 
little attention is given to color and the cattle are some¬ 
times almost solid red. The horns of this breed are 
long, turn up, and have black tips. 

Ayrshire cows give large quantities of milk which is 



Fig. 60.—A Guernsey cow. Shuttlewick Levity, Grand Champion at the 
National Dairy Show, 1923. 

not rich in butterfat and well suited for feeding infants. 
The calves are of good size at birth and grow rapidly. 

Brown Swiss.— The Brown Swiss originated in Swit¬ 
zerland. They are the result of breeding for animals 
that would produce beef, milk, and serve as beasts of 
burden. The cows weigh about 1150 to 1700 pounds. 
This breed of cattle is light-gray, mouse, dark brown, or 
brownish dun in color. The horns are of medium size 
and are white at the base and black at the tip. 



88 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Brown Swiss calves are large at birth weighing from 
65 to 90 pounds. 

Housing Dairy Cattle.—The cold weather and the 
extremely hot weather are injurious to milk cows. 
They need protection so that the surplus food may be 
readily converted into milk. A clean stable will be ne¬ 
cessary for providing comfort. Stalls or stanchions 
are desirable where there is a number of cows, to prevent 
crowding and fighting. 

Green Feed and Pastures make up the greater por- 



Fig. 61.—Guernsey cattle. 


tion of the dairy ration in the South. Milk production 
requires feed containing a large amount of water. These 
are known as succulent feeds. Grass is our most com¬ 
mon source of succulent feed, but temporary pastures 
of oats and legumes will furnish more milk producing 
substance. In dry seasons and during the winter, the 
use of silage is advisable. 

Grain Feeds provide the solid substances and fats 
contained in milk. We call them concentrates, while 
grass, straw, and hay are known as roughage. The 
amount of the latter should balance the concentrate 




CATTLE 


89 


fed. Our object is to feed a ration that will not pro¬ 
duce too much fat but will cause the cow to produce 
a large amount of milk. 

The amount of concentrates fed may be governed 
to some extent by the amount of milk given by the 
cow. It has been estimated that a cow should be fed 
one pound of grain mixture for every four pints of milk 
produced. Thus, if a cow gives four gallons of milk 
each day, she needs the equivalent of eight pounds of 
grain. Some feeders have taken the butter production 



Fig. 62.—Ayrshire cattle. 


of a cow as the method of determining how much to feed. 
If the cow furnishes one pound of butterfat each day, 
she should have six pounds of concentrated feed. An 
important factor in feeding a dairy cow is that she re¬ 
quires a certain amount of nutrition to support her 
body. Additional feed is needed for the production of 
milk. 

Water and Salt are too often overlooked in caring 
for the cow. If a good supply of running water is not 
available, fresh water should be supplied in a tank or 
trough so that the cows may drink whenever they will. 





90 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



A block of salt, or a small box of salt should not be 
forgotten in caring for cattle. 

Feeding Calves.—For the first day or two, after the 
calf is born, he may be allowed to nurse his mother. 
He may not take all of her milk, and she should be 
“stripped” to prevent trouble with her udder. In order 
to keep the cow for dairy purposes, the calf is usually 
fed by hand, or from a bucket. This should be begun 
while the calf is very young, by placing the fingers in 
his mouth and holding his head down to the milk in a 


Fig. 63.—An Ayrshire cow. 

bucket. It is best to have warm fresh milk so that 
when he begins to suck the fingers, he takes up a sup¬ 
ply of milk, just as he did from his mother. After a 
short time, he drinks the milk readily. Cleanliness of 
the bucket and milk are important, to prevent diseases 
such as “scours.” Fresh milk should be fed until the 
calf is two weeks old, after which skim milk may be 
gradually introduced into the ration. 

Records.—How do you know whether a cow is giving 
enough milk during the year to pay for her feed? Do 










CATTLE 


91 


you know how much it costs to keep a cow? If it costs 
more to feed a cow than the value of her milk, the 
best thing to do is to get a better cow, or sell the cow 
and buy milk. Do not keep a “boarder” cow. How are 
you going to tell which cow is a boarder? The only way 
to find out is a record for every day in the year. The 
cow eats whether she gives milk or not, so the 'feed 
record is important for each day of the year. It is 
very easy to make out a record blank for a month and 
place it in the barn or some place where only a minute 
is required to record the weight of milk produced and 
the amount of feed given. The following plans will 
suggest a record for five cows: 


MILK RECORD 


Month of 

Bossie 

Spot 

Redd 

Beauty 

Flossie 

January 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 A. M. 

18 

16 

17 

10 

12 

P. M. 

20 

17 

17 

8 

10 

2 A. M. 

18 

15 

16 

11 

13 

P. M. 

19 

16 

15 

12 

11 

3 A. M. 

16 

17 

18 

9 

10 

P. M. 

19 

16 

19 

10 

12 

Total for month .. . 

110 

97 

102 

60 

68 


The above record indicates the method of keeping 
weights for the morning and evening milkings. A total 
for the month will show how much more Bossie re¬ 
turns than Beauty, 




















92 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


It is readily observed that for the first three days 
in January, Bossie produced almost twice as much milk 
as Beauty, with a little more feed. Figuring the price of 
milk at two dollars per hundred pounds, Bossie would 
produce two dollars and twenty cents worth of milk in 
three days. Beauty would produce only one dollar and 


FEEDING RECORD 


Month 

Bossie 

Spot 

Redd 

Beauty 

Flossie 

January 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 Grain. 

8 

8 

8 

6 

7 

Hay. 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

2 Grain. 

9 

8 

7 

7 

8 

Hay. 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

3 Grain. 

8 

9 

6 

6 

6 

Hay. 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

Total Grain.. .. 

25 

25 

21 

19 

21 

Total Hay. 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 


twenty cents worth. Bossie’s feed would cost one dol¬ 
lar for the three days, while Beauty’s would cost eighty 
cents. The profit for Bossie would represent one dol¬ 
lar and twenty cents, while Beauty would only return 
forty cents or one-third as much. It is evident that 
Beauty is a “boarder cow” and that she should be re¬ 
placed, because the labor of caring for the milk and of 
marketing will represent a loss during the year. 
























CATTLE 


93 


An occasional test for butterfat will indicate the 
amount of fat in the milk. This is especially important 
for people selling cream. It is not difficult to make 
a test with the Babcock tester. The cream tester at 
your nearest cream station will be glad to test samples 
of milk, if you will take them to him. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State several reasons why farmers should keep cattle. 

2. Name two principal types of cattle discussed in your text. 



Fig. 64.—A Brown Swiss cow. 


3. Name the breeds of beef cattle. 

4. What are some of the characteristics of each breed? 

5. What is a polled cow? 

6. Describe two of our common breeds of polled cattle. 

7. Why is less labor required on farms where beef cattle are 
raised than on farms where dairy cattle are raised? 

8. Explain the following: Dual purpose, baby beef, purebred, 
and scrub. 

9. Give the weights of some of the familiar types of beef 
cattle. 




94 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


10. State several problems to be considered in feeding beef 
cattle. 

11. What are feeders, where are they raised? 

12. Which gain the most weight in the same period, old or 
young cattle? 

13. Name eight guides to follow in profitable beef production. 

14. State the direct and indirect profits that may be obtained 
from dairying. 

15. Name the five major breeds of dairy cattle. 



16. Locate Holland, Jersey, and Guernsey Islands, Ayr, Swit¬ 


zerland? 

17. Describe a good milk cow. 

18. What breed of cattle is used for cream and butter making? 

19. Compare the weights of dairy cattle with the weights of 
beef cattle. 

20. What kinds of pasture are best for dairy cattle? 

21. Tell how to feed a good dairy cow. 

22. Tell how to teach calves to drink milk. 

23. Why is it important to test milk for butterfat and keep 
a record of the feed consumed? 




CATTLE 95 

24. Explain how to keep a monthly milk record for a dairy 
cow. 

25. How would you get rid of “boarder cows”? 

PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: To keep a record of the milk produced by cows at 
home. 

Materials: Hand or balance-scales, cardboard, record sheet, 
and pencil. 

Procedure: Rule the cardboard as a record sheet, as described 
in the lesson. Place the record upon the wall where it may be 
noted every day. Milk the cow, weigh the milk and record 
the number of pounds at each milking. At the close of the 
month, the total production should be added and the result 
recorded in a book for comparison with other months. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To find out what it costs to keep the cow. 

Material: A pair of hand scales, pencil, and record sheet. 

Procedure: Measure and weigh the amount of feed to be fed 
to each cow during a week. Note the amount fed each day and 
the cost of the feed. Total the amount of feed used each month. 

Results: Compare the amounts of feed given to each cow 
and find out if the cows are making returns for the feed given. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Butterfat. The fat found in milk or cream. 

Conformation. The balanced arranged parts of an animal’s 
body to produce a model form. 

Diversified. To change, to make different; as growing different 
crops upon the farm. 

Dual-purpose. That which serves two purposes; cattle suitable 
for beef and milk production. 

Dun. A yellowish or grayish brown color. 

Feeders. An animal to be fed or fattened. 

Muzzle. The covering of the mouth of an animal. 

Nibble. To take very small bites. 

Predominant. The most important or the most prevalent color. 


96 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Ration. An allowance of food fed in one day to maintain the 
body of an animal. 

Silage. Fodder, usually finely cut, preserved by compressing 
it in a silo. 

Sparse. Not thickly grown, thinly scattered. 

Stanchions. Upright bars or post to hold cattle in the barns. 
Standard. That which is established by a custom or general 
consent. 

Strain. A breed of animals or plants that have related parents 
and similar characteristics. 

Switch. The bushy end of the tail of a cow. 

Tank. A large basin or an artificial receptacle for holding 
water. 

Tendencies. Inclination to do things for certain results. 

Udder. A large milk gland; as the cow’s udder. 

Utensil. A vessel for some particular use. 

REFERENCES 

“Feeding Cotton Seed Products to Livestock,” U. S. Dept, of 
Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 1179. 

“The Feeding of Dairy Cows,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 
743. 

“Dairying in Oklahoma,” Oklahoma Bui. 99. 

“Milk Testing and Dairy Herd Records,” Oklahoma Bui. 20. 
“Dairy Farming,” Michaels, Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn. 


CHAPTER VIII 


WORK ANIMALS 

Horses for the South.—Although the tendency of 
American farmers is to adopt mechanical means of ac¬ 
complishing work in the field, there will be a demand for 
horses or mules to supply the needs of Southern farmers. 
The farm tractor does much of the work that has been 
found too hard for animals, during hot weather. It has 
not yet been so well adapted to the needs of small farm¬ 
ers and truck gardeners. 

Types.—Harness or carriage, saddle, and draft horses 
have been recognized as distinct types. The first two 
kinds of horses are light bodied animals, unsuited for 
farm work. They are developed now for the race track 
and show ring, while the automobile provides a large part 
of our transportation. Draft horses include those heavy 
animals which supply the power for moving the plows, 
cultivators and wagons. 

Qualities.—In order to pull heavy loads, a draft horse 
must have weight. We consider sixteen or eighteen hun¬ 
dred pounds as a very suitable weight for the draft horse. 
This weight should not be in a form that is too awkward 
to move rapidly. A draft horse should be able to lift his 
feet and move with ease. However, in order to move 
heavy loads, he must not be too high above the ground. 
His body should be deep and wide. The muscles of the 
legs of a draft horse must be powerful, and the bones 

97 


98 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


should be large enough to carry his great weight. We 
may conclude that a draft horse must be active, heavy, 
and powerful. 

Breeds.—Most of the horses which meet the require¬ 
ments of the draft type have come from Europe. 

Purebred horses are registered by breed associations 
just the same as hogs and cattle. Crossing our western 



Fifl. 66.—A Percheron stallion. 


mares with a purebred sire produces a more improved 
type of draft animal. Our recognized breeds of draft 
horses in America are the Percheron, Belgian, Shire, 
Clydesdale and Suffolk. 

Percherons.—This breed of horses came from north¬ 
ern France. They are big black or gray animals. Their 
size does not interfere with their activity or ability to 
walk rapidly. Their heads indicate intelligence and an 
active temperament. The fact that you see so many big 






WORK ANIMALS 


99 


dappled gray or black horses on our farms is ample 
proof of their popularity. 

Belgians as the name suggests, came from Belgium. 
They are bays, roans, or sorrels. They are the most 
compact in body of our horses. They have short, broad, 
massive bodies on short legs. Belgians are inclined to be 
rather sluggish and stumble awkwardly when walking, 



Fig. 67.—A champion Belgian stallion, Lyndale Joe. 


but their great size makes them very desirable to cross 
with our native mares. 

Shires are the English black or brown horses. They 
are suited for slow work where weight and strength are 
needed. You may recognize them by the white fetlocks. 
They are larger than most other breeds and are usually 
more sluggish. They cross very well with our native 
horses. 








100 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Clydesdales are known by their white faces and feet. 
They come from Scotland, along the Clyde River. They 
are bay, brown, or chestnut in color. While the Clyde 
is a large draft horse, he moves freely, with a straight, 
rather stylish step. There are perhaps fewer physical 
defects in these horses than in any other breed. How¬ 
ever, since they do not cross so well with American stock, 
they have not become so popular as the Percheron. 


Fig. 68.—A Shire stallion. Locking Sailor Emanuel. 

Suffolks are known better in England and in the 
Eastern United States than elsewhere. They are nearly 
always chestnut or sorrel in color, with very little long 
hair upon the fetlock. They have small heads, thick 
necks, and square, powerfully built bodies. Suffolks have 
not been popular in the West, because they do not 
produce a very desirable type when crossed with the 
native stock. 

Feeding and Caring for Horses.—We like to have 
horses that are “easy to keep,” Quiet, gentle horses do 




WORK ANIMALS 


101 


not fret, and they chew their food much better than the 
nervous type. A horse cannot eat so much for his weight 
as a cow, and greater care is necessary in giving the 
food. 

Some grain is always desirable in the ration for horses. 
Especially when they are working, they must have con¬ 
centrated nourishment that will supply energy and 



Fig. 69.—A Clydesdale stallion, Fyvie Baron, 17608. 


muscle. Corn and oats are the cheapest and best grain 
feeds for the horse. A little cotton seed meal or wheat 
bran often helps make an appetizing feed when added 
to the corn or oat diet. When a horse is working hard, 
it is very important that he should have a reasonable 
amount of grain three times each day. It is much better 
to feed at regular hours. Hay and straw of various kinds 
are known as roughage. Horses need a good supply of 
hay in addition to their grain. Prairie hay or timothy 
are the best kinds of roughage when horses are working, 







102 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

because they provide the proper kind of nourishment 
for building muscle. Oat straw is very good feed, if a 
variety is desired. Alfalfa, clover, cowpea, and Sudan 
hay are used generally where the animals are to be fat¬ 
tened. It is suggested that most of the hay be fed in the 
evening, because it overloads the stomach and prevents 
proper digestion. Horses should not be allowed a large 
amount of gre'en food when working, because it has a 


Fig. 70.—A Suffolk stallion, Hawthorn on Farmingham. 

tendency to produce soft muscles and decrease the endur¬ 
ance. Water should be offered to horses before and after 
eating, while they are at work. They should not be 
allowed to drink a large amount when very warm from 
exercising. Cold water may cause a chilling of the stom¬ 
ach, producing indigestion, or “water colic.” Horses 
should have access to a block or a box of salt at all 
times. 

While it is better to keep only those horses with very 



WORK ANIMALS 


103 


tough solid feet, it is important to see that they be well 
shod if their feet become tender. The necks and shoul¬ 
ders of horses pulling heavy loads often become sore. 
This should be avoided by fitting collars properly. The 
hames and tugs should be so adjusted that the pressure 
upon the shoulder may be equalized. 

Mules As Work Animals.—The mule is the favorite 
work animal of the South. This is probably due to the 
fact that mules can stand hot weather and hard work 



Fig. 72.—A team properly harnessed. 


better than horses. They are easy to handle in large 
bunches, live longer, stand more abuse, are freer from 
diseases and lameness, and are at home with negro 
drivers. Their praises are sung in the lumber camps, 
road camps, coal mines, oil fields, and on the battle 
fields. 

Mules and Hinnies.—The mule is a hybrid or cross 
between the mare and the jack. The hybrid between 
the stallion and the jennet is called a hinny. The mule 
is larger than the hinny and is better adapted for farm 






104 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


work and heavy hauling. Hinnies are not raised for 
work animals in the United States. Some countries use 
them in the mines. 

Types of Mules Found on Farms.—In the hilly sec¬ 
tions of the South we find many small light mules that 
are about 12 to 14% hands high and weighing about 
800 pounds. These animals were produced by breeding 
small native mares to small jacks. They represent our 



Fig. 73.—A mule team. 

cheap mules. Cotton mules are mules that are larger 
boned and more massive in form, weighing about 1100 
pounds and are from 15% to 15% hands high. Gen¬ 
eral purpose or sugar mules weigh from 1200 to 1300 
pounds and are about 15% hands high. Experiments 
have demonstrated that it pays best to produce the 
better class of mules. 

Leading Mule Producing States.—Some of our most 
important mule producing states are Texas, Missouri, 
Georgia, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama, 
Kentucky, Arkansas and Kansas. During the past few 












WORK ANIMALS 


105 


years mule farms have been established in many other 
states in the North and West. Our best mules will 
always come from areas that have limestone soils and 
abundant pastures of blue grass, clover, alfalfa, Ber¬ 
muda, and Johnson grass. 

Our principal mule markets are located at New 
Orleans, Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Louis¬ 
ville, Nashville, Oklahoma City, and Fort Worth. 



Fig. 74.—A Jack. 


Feeding, Care and Management of Mule Colts.— 

On farms where there are not pastures, the mule colt is 
taught to eat a little wheat bran, oats, cut grass, and 
clean hay at four months of age. If the colts are born in 
March, a good plan is to give the mare and colt access 
to a good pasture until October the first. The weanling 
mule is placed in a lot with an open shed and fed corn 
and cob meal and oats. The animal should have access 
to pasture of winter oats or be fed some good hay. The 
mule’s ration should be increased as it gets older. 







106 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


While it is agreed that mules will stand more rough 
abuse than horses, it is best to care for them properly. 
The quarters should be kept sanitary, and the mules 
should be fed properly and regularly. Some authorities 
claim that it is best to break young mules to do light 
work when they are two years old. 

Young mules should not be confined in a barbed wire 
inclosure, because they are likely to be injured. 



Fig. 75.—A light mule and a general purpose mule. 


Feeding Work Mules.—It is advisable to fatten 
young mules before marketing them as they bring better 
prices. Mules are fed about the same as horses. The 
most common feeds used in the South are corn, oats, and 
hay. Such feeds as cottonseed meal, molasses, cowpea 
hay, oat straw, and corn and cob meal are fed with 
good results in some districts. Mules may be fed in 
lots together while it is not advisable to feed work horses 
this way, because they overeat. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the principal breeds of work horses. 

2. Explain the following terms: breed, type, conformation, 
roughage, quality, action, and purebred. 





WORK ANIMALS, 


107 


3. What breeds of draft horses are raised in your community? 

4. Describe a good farm work horse. 

5. Prepare a list of feeds that are used in feeding work horses. 

6. Find out from practical farmers how much feed they are 
giving their work teams each day. 

7. Get the market price of each feed used and estimate the 
cost of keeping a good team for one year. 

8. For what purpose are mules used? 

9. Why do mules do best in the South? Explain fully. 

10. Describe a good farm work mule. 

11. How does a mule differ from a hinny? Which is best for 
work? 

12. Tell her/ jmu would raise a mule colt. 

13. Name seme of the principal mule producing states. 

14. Civc the names cf our best mule markets. 

15. Are the mules raised or shipped into your district? 

16. Discuss the feeding of work mules. 

17. Does it take as much feed to feed mules as horses? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To study a work team. 

Material: One or two good work teams. 

Procedure: Learn the ages of horses and mules by examining 
the teeth. Ask the owner of the team to estimate the weight 
of the animals, and to show you some of the parts of the horse; 
withers, fetlocks, pastern, crest, poll, rump, stifle, flank, hock, 
and girth. Measure the height of the horses or mules in “hands.” 
Unharness the team and see if you can replace the harness. 
Locate the hames, backhand, tugs, hamestrings, lines, quarter- 
straps, and breeching. How much feed is required to feed the 
team you are studying? 

Exercise 2 

Object: To learn to make halters and tie horses. 

Material: Three-eighths-inch rope, a halter for a pattern, a 
tape or ruler, small white cord, or wire to prevent ravelling. 

Procedure: Examine the halter pattern and make a halter 
that will fit the head of the animal, following the plan of the 
original. Tie or bind the loose ends of the rope to prevent 
ravelling. 


108 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED- 

Abuse. Ill use or mistreatment. 

Breeching. The part of the harness which passes around the 
back part of the horse. 

Chestnut. Reddish brown color. 

Concentrated. Condensed, containing a high percentage of 
nourishment. 

Dappled. A spotted animal; as a dappled gray horse. 

Digestion. The power of changing feed into body nourishment. 
Draft horse. A horse for drawing heavy loads. 

Fetlock. Tufted cushion-like projection above the hoof of the 
horse. 

Hame. Pieces of harness that fit over the collar, to which the 
traces are fastened. 

Hand. A hand’s breath or 4 inches used in estimating the 
height of horses. 

Hybrid. The offspring of two animals of different races or 
species. 

Mechanical. That which is done by machines. 

Sorrel. Yellowish brown. 

Stifle. The joint above the hock joint in the hind leg of a 
horse. It corresponds to the knee joint in man. 

Tractor. A gasoline or steam engine used for drawing imple¬ 
ments. 

Truck. Vegetables raised for the market. 

REFERENCES 

“Horse Breeding Suggestions to Farmers,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui. 803. 

“Breaking and Training Colts,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 667. 

“How to Select a Sound Horse,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 779. 

“Breeds of Draft Horses,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 619. 
“Breeds of Livestock,” Gay, Macmillan. 


WORK ANIMALS 


109 


BREED ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE REGIS¬ 
TRATION OF PURE BRED HORSES 

Address The Secretary 

Percheron Society of America, Union Stockyards, Chicago, Ill. 
American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian 
Horses, Wabash, Ind. 

American Suffolk Horse Breeders’ Association, W. Adams St., 
Chicago. Or Janesville, Wis. 

American Shire Breeders’ Association, Union Stockyards, Chicago. 
Or Tonica, Ill. 

American Clydesdale Breeders’ Association, Union Stockyards, 
Chicago. 

Jacks and Jennets. 

American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets, Columbia, 
Tenn. 


CHAPTER IX 


HOGS 

Pigs and Pigs.—Farming without hogs is like bank¬ 
ing without money or plowing without a plow. Certain 
kinds of banking may be accomplished without money, 
and it is possible to plow without a plow. However, 
the greater portion of our farming involves at least a 
few hogs. One reason for the almost universal rais¬ 
ing of the hog is the fact that he is adapted to a wide 
range of climate and conditions. His original home 
was probably in warm countries, but he is found in al¬ 
most all parts of the world. Due to the fact that much 
of the meat used for human food comes from the hog, 
special attention has been given to improving and car¬ 
ing for the animal. 

It has not been so many years ago since our porkers 
were long nosed, long eared, razor-backed creatures 
roaming about the forests. They obtained a scanty liv¬ 
ing from roots and herbs of the wilds. These swine 
required almost two years to develop into an animal 
suitable for slaughtering. Our forefathers found that 
it was more satisfactory to domesticate hogs and feed 
them for a more dependable supply of meat. 

Under the influences of civilization, hogs have ceased 
to develop long ears, necks and razor-backs. They have 
become a rapidly growing animal, the most economical 
and profitable for the American farmer. Natural se- 


110 


HOGS 


111 




Fig. 76—B. 











102 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

because they provide the proper kind of nourishment 
for building muscle. Oat straw is very good feed, if a 
variety is desired. Alfalfa, clover, cowpea, and Sudan 
hay are used generally where the animals are to be fat¬ 
tened. It is suggested that most of the hay be fed in the 
evening, because it overloads the stomach and prevents 
proper digestion. Horses should not be allowed a large 
amount of gre'en food when working, because it has a 


Fig. 70.—A Suffolk stallion, Hawthorn on Farmingham. 

tendency io produce soft muscles and decrease the endur¬ 
ance. Water should be offered to horses before and after 
eating, while they are at work. They should not be 
allowed to drink a large amount when very warm from 
exercising. Cold water may cause a chilling of the stom¬ 
ach, producing indigestion, or “water colic.” Horses 
should have access to a block or a box of salt at all 
times. 

While it is better to keep only those horses with very 






WORK ANIMALS 


103 


tough solid feet, it is important to see that they be well 
shod if their feet become tender. The necks and shoul¬ 
ders of horses pulling heavy loads often become sore. 
This should be avoided by fitting collars properly. The 
hames and tugs should be so adjusted that the pressure 
upon the shoulder may be equalized. 

Mules As Work Animals.—The mule is the favorite 
work animal of the South. This is probably due to the 
fact that mules can stand hot weather and hard work 



Fig. 72.—A team properly harnessed. 


better than horses. They are easy to handle in large 
bunches, live longer, stand more abuse, are freer from 
diseases and lameness, and, are at home with negro 
drivers. Their praises are sung in the lumber camps, 
road camps, coal mines, oil fields, and on the battle 
fields. 

Mules and Hinnies.—The mule is a hybrid or cross 
between the mare and the jack. The hybrid between 
the stallion and the jennet is called a hinny. The mule 
is larger than the hinny and is better adapted for farm 





104 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


work and heavy hauling. Hinnies are not raised for 
work animals in the United States. Some countries use 
them in the mines. 

Types of Mules Found on Farms.—In the hilly sec¬ 
tions of the South we find many small light mules that 
are about 12 to 14% hands high and weighing about 
800 pounds. These animals were produced by breeding 
small native mares to small jacks. They represent our 



Fig. 73 — A mule team. 


cheap mules. Cotton mules are mules that are larger 
boned and more massive in form, weighing about 1100 
pounds and are from 15% to 15% hands high. Gen¬ 
eral purpose or sugar mules weigh from 1200 to 1300 
pounds and are about 15% hands high. Experiments 
have demonstrated that it pays best to produce the 
better class of mules. 

Leading Mule Producing States.—Some of our most 
important mule producing states are Texas, Missouri, 
Georgia, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama, 
Kentucky, Arkansas and Kansas. During the past few 















WORK ANIMALS, 


105 


years mule farms have been established in many other 
states in the North and West. Our best mules will 
always come from areas that have limestone soils and 
abundant pastures of blue grass, clover, alfalfa, Ber¬ 
muda, and Johnson grass. 

Our principal mule markets are located at New 
Orleans, Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Louis¬ 
ville, Nashville, Oklahoma City, and Fort Worth. 



Fig. 74.—A Jack. 


Feeding, Care and Management of Mule Colts.—* 

On farms where there are not pastures, the mule colt is 
taught to eat a little wheat bran, oats, cut grass, and 
clean hay at four months of age. If the colts are born in 
March, a good plan is to give the mare and colt access 
to a good pasture until October the first. The weanling 
mule is placed in a lot with an open shed and fed corn 
and cob meal and oats. The animal should have access 
to pasture of winter oats or be fed some good hay. The 
mule’s ration should be increased as it gets older. 






106 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


While it is agreed that mules will stand more rough 
abuse than horses, it is best to care for them properly. 
The quarters should be kept sanitary, and the mules 
should be fed properly and regularly. Some authorities 
claim that it is best to break young mules to do light 
work when they are two years old. 

Young mules should not be confined in a barbed wire 
inclosure, because they are likely to be injured. 



Fig. 75.—A light mule and a general purpose mule. 


Feeding Work Mules.—It is advisable to fatten 
young mules before marketing them as they bring better 
prices. Mules are fed about the same as horses. The 
most common feeds used in the South are corn, oats, and 
hay. Such feeds as cottonseed meal, molasses, cowpea 
hay, oat straw, and corn and cob meal are fed with 
good results in some districts. Mules may be fed in 
lots together while it is not advisable to feed work horses 
this way, because they overeat. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the principal breeds of work horses. 

2. Explain the following terms: breed, type, conformation, 
roughage, quality, action, and purebred. 




WORK ANIMALS 


107 


3. What breeds of draft horses are raised in your community? 

4. Describe a good farm work horse. 

5. Prepare a list of feeds that are used in feeding work horses. 

6. Find out from practical farmers how much feed they are 
giving their work teams each day. 

7. Get the market price of each feed used and estimate the 
cost of keeping a good team for one year. 

8. For what purpose are mules used? 

9. Why do mules do best in the South? Explain fully. 

10. Describe a good farm work mule. 

11. How does a mule differ from a hinny? Which is best for 
work? 

12. Tell hew jrcu would raise a mule colt. 

13. Name seme of the principal mule producing states. 

14. Give the names cf our best mule markets. 

15. Are the mules raised or shipped into your district? 

16. Discuss the feeding of work mules. 

17. Does it take as much feed to feed mules as horses? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To study a work team. 

Material: One or two good work teams. 

Procedure: Learn the ages of horses and mules by examining 
the teeth. Ask the owner of the team to estimate the weight 
of the animals, and to show you some of the parts of the horse; 
withers, fetlocks, pastern, crest, poll, rump, stifle, flank, hock, 
and girth. Measure the height of the horses or mules in hands. 
Unharness the team and see if you can replace the harness. 
Locate the hames, backhand, tugs, hamestrings, lines, quarter- 
straps, and breeching. How much feed is required to feed the 
team you are studying? 

Exercise 2 

Object: To learn to make halters and tie horses. 

Material: Three-eighths-inch rope, a halter for a pattern, a 
tape or ruler, small white cord, or wire to prevent ravelling. 

Procedure: Examine the halter pattern and make a halter 
that will fit the head of the animal, following the plan of the 
original. Tie or bind the loose ends of the rope to prevent 
ravelling. 


108 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Abuse. Ill use or mistreatment. 

Breeching. The part of the harness which passes around the 
back part of the horse. 

Chestnut. Reddish brown color. 

Concentrated. Condensed, containing a high percentage of 
nourishment. 

Dappled. A spotted animal; as a dappled gray horse. 

Digestion. The power of changing feed into body nourishment. 
Draft horse. A horse for drawing heavy loads. 

Fetlock. Tufted cushion-like projection above the hoof of the 
horse. 

Hame. Pieces of harness that fit over the collar, to which the 
traces are fastened. 

Hand. A hand’s breath or 4 inches used in estimating the 
height of horses. 

Hybrid. The offspring of two animals of different races or 
species. 

Mechanical. That which is done by machines. 

Sorrel. Yellowish brown. 

Stifle. The joint above the hock joint in the hind leg of a 
horse. It corresponds to the knee joint in man. 

Tractor. A gasoline or steam engine used for drawing imple¬ 
ments. 

Truck. Vegetables raised for the market. 

REFERENCES 

“Horse Breeding Suggestions to Farmers,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui. 803. 

“Breaking and Training Colts,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 667. 

“How to Select a Sound Horse,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 779. 

“Breeds of Draft Horses,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 619. 
“Breeds of Livestock,” Gay, Macmillan. 


WORK ANIMALS 


109 


BREED ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE REGIS¬ 
TRATION OF PURE BRED HORSES 

Address The Secretary 

Percheron Society of America, Union Stockyards, Chicago, Ill. 
American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian 
Horses, Wabash, Ind. 

American Suffolk Horse Breeders’ Association, W. Adams St., 
Chicago. Or Janesville, Wis. 

American Shire Breeders’ Association, Union Stockyards, Chicago. 
Or Tonica, Ill. 

American Clydesdale Breeders’ Association, Union Stockyards, 
Chicago. 

Jacks and Jennets. 

American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets, Columbia, 
Tenn. 


CHAPTER IX 


HOGS 

Pigs and Pigs.—Farming without hogs is like bank¬ 
ing without money or plowing without a plow. Certain 
kinds of banking may be accomplished without money, 
and it is possible to plow without a plow. However, 
the greater portion of our farming involves at least a 
few hogs. One reason for the almost universal rais¬ 
ing of the hog is the fact that he is adapted to a wide 
range of climate and conditions. His original home 
was probably in warm countries, but he is found in al¬ 
most all parts of the world. Due to the fact that much 
of the meat used for human food comes from the hog, 
special attention has been given to improving and car¬ 
ing for the animal. 

It has not been so many years ago since our porkers 
were long nosed, long eared, razor-backed creatures 
roaming about the forests. They obtained a scanty liv¬ 
ing from roots and herbs of the wilds. These swine 
required almost two years to develop into an animal 
suitable for slaughtering. Our forefathers found that 
it was more satisfactory to domesticate hogs and feed 
them for a more dependable supply of meat. 

Under the influences of civilization, hogs have ceased 
to develop long ears, necks and razor-backs. They have 
become a rapidly growing animal, the most economical 
and profitable for the Atnerican farmer. Natural se- 


110 


HOGS 


111 









Fig. 76—A. 



Fig. 76—B, 


* 

















112 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


lection and experience have taught our farmers that 
a few breeds are more profitable than a mongrel mix¬ 
ture of all kinds of hogs. 

Breeds.—The Duroc is the familiar red hog. The 
Big-type Poland China first began to revolutionize 
the pork industry. He is a large black hog seen in so 



Fig. 76.—A. Purebred Hampshire sow. 

B. A crossbred spotted sow. 

C. A razorback sow of several breeds. 

many farm yards. The Spotted Poland China has de¬ 
veloped more recently, as a distinct breed. The Berk¬ 
shire is recognized by his hooked nose, sharp ears and 
blue-black coat of hair. A similar type of hog with 
a white belt and'vest, rather a hog with a dress suit, 
is known as the Hampshire. The quality of meat from 
this breed is considered superior to that of other hogs. 



HOGS 


113 


The Chester White and the Yorkshire are splendid clean 
looking hogs. However, their tendency to blister in 
the hot sun has limited the localities in which they are 
raised. The Tamworth is a large red hog, having many 
of the tendencies of the original hog with a sharp nose 
and ears. 

The Qualities of Breeds.—To state that one breed 
has any great advantages over the others would hardly 



Fig. 77 _A Duroc sow. Note the straight feet, the deep sides, the well 
developed hams and the refined head. 


be justifiable. Under ordinary conditions the Poland 
China and Duroc have been the most popular breeds. 
In former years, these hogs were selected so that the 
majority were short, fat animals. They were called 
lard hogs. More recent selections have developed a longer 
hog with a high arched back. The even distribution of 
fat and lean in the sides has created a demand for 
Berkshire bacon. The Hampshire is also considered 
a type of hog with firmer and more succulent meat. 
White hogs produce a very clean appearing carcass, 











114 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

and many butchers offer a premium for the Chester 
White of Yorkshire. 

Registration.— In order to keep the various breeds 
pure, associations have been formed for the naming 
and registration of the breeding animals. The owner 
may receive a name and number from the association 
for the hog whose ancestors have been “registered” in 
the books of the breed. These registered animals are 
the source of our purebred hogs. Crossbreds are those 



Fig. 78.—A Berkshire boar, Anderson Hill Baron. 


pigs produced by crossing purebreds of different breeds, 
as Poland Chinas and Chester Whites. A scrub is a 
product of no particular breed and is usually an ex¬ 
pensive animal to keep. Purebred hogs are so com¬ 
mon that it is poor economy to have any other kind for 
raising young ones. 

Type. The most popular market hog of the oresent 
is of the big type, early developing kind, with a long, 
high-arched back. The demand is for a large per¬ 
centage of pork chops and lean hams, with a minimum 




HOGS 


115 


of fat and other waste. Substitutes for lard have de¬ 
creased the demand for the former “lard hog.” Farm¬ 
ers need pigs which will weigh two hundred pounds 
when they are six months of age. 

Feeding.—For a pig to weigh two hundred pounds at 
the age of six months, he must have feed. After pigs 
are two weeks of age and have made a vigorous start, 
they may begin to look for more feed. We assume that 
the mother has plenty of grass or clover so that she may 



Fig. 79—A Hampshire, Royal Cherokee, jr. 

have a good supply"of milk. The young porkers are 
soon able to crack grains of corn. If a small trough 
or feeder is placed in the pen, as shown in the diagram, 
the cracked grain is fed, and that they soon learn to 
eat. Dry grain prevents bowel troubles, especially if 
a little charcoal and salt is supplied. Pigs learn to 
chew dry feed before they learn to drink. After three 
or four weeks, milk or slop may be fed without causing 
scours. Pigs will not eat too much if they have a bal¬ 
anced ration and become accustomed to a self-feeder 








116 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


while they are young. Starting the youngsters to eat 
while they are with the mother makes weaning a small 
matter. With an abundance of milk and pasture, they 
will wean themselves when they are about nine or ten 
weeks of age. 

Feeding for Growth.—Following the weaning period, 
the great object in growing hogs for market is to de¬ 
velop a frame. Pasture and drinking water should al¬ 
ways be present in abundance. Grain is also fed with 



Fig. 80— A Chester White boar. Boulton’s Challenger. 


a self-feeder, so that each animal may have all that he 
wants. Ground oats, barley, corn, or rye may be used. 
Pigs do not eat too much grain if allowed to make 
their own choice. If plenty of skim milk is available, 
it will hasten the growth of the porkers. Tankage may 
be fed in small amounts if there is no milk. These 
feeds are known as proteins and are essential for the 
growth of bone and muscle. 

Hogging Down.— Finishing for the market means the 
fattening period usually during the last month before 



HOGS 


117 



Fig. 81.—A Tamworth. Oak Grove Lad, a typical bacon hog. 



FiG. 82.—A good type of hog. Poland China. 




118 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


selling the pigs. This process is accomplished most 
economically by “hogging off” corn, kafir, or rye. A 
small field should be fenced temporarily. The hogs 
will do their own feeding, needing only plenty of water, 
charcoal, salt, and tankage or cottonseed meal. Very 
little feed is wasted in “hogging off,” and older sows 
with pigs will follow up to finish eating the waste grain. 
The above method avoids the expense of harvesting the 
crop and also of carrying feed to the hogs. 



Fig. 83.—A creep for pigs. 


Marketing.— When a hog weighs from two hundred 
to two hundred and fifty pounds, he is ready to sell. 
The object should be to have the hogs weighing about 
that much at a time when there is the greatest demand 
and when the price is the highest. Many farmers do 
not raise enough hogs to ship directly to a large market, 
and they must depend upon disposing of their sur¬ 
plus at home. However, this may be avoided by ar¬ 
ranging to sell when four or five neighbors have hogs 
for sale. They may then combine their shipment to 




HOGS 


119 


form a carload, getting the advantage of the higher price 
paid at the central market. 

Raising Pigs.—A permanent success in raising hogs 
depends upon the production of those pigs which are 
fed on the farm. Thus, if the farmer produces his own 
feed and his own feeding stock, there is no great amount 
of speculation involved. He sells a finished product 
without involving the expense and labor of harvesting 
and of removing a large amount of fertility from the 
soil. 



Fig. 84 .—Hogging down com. 


The most important step in profitable pig growing is 
the selection of the right kind of sows. Regardless of 
breed, a sow should show the type demanded in a mar¬ 
ket animal, namely, a strong, wide, deeply fleshed back; 
smoothly covered shoulders; plump, well-rounded hams, 
and a trim neat underline. It is doubtful if a sow 
is profitable if she does not raise seven or eight pigs 
in each litter. Two litters each year are produced by 
good sows. Just before the pigs are farrowed, the 
mother should be placed where she will make her bed in 
a selected corner. A portable hog house as shown in 




120 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the diagram will serve. The mother should not be 
fed grain during the twenty-four hours previous to 
the birth of the pigs. A supply of clean water is all 
that is necessary. She should not be fed too much 
during the ten days after farrowing. 

Diseases.—The best way to handle the diseases of 
hogs is to avoid them. Over-crowding causes many 
forms of infection. Lack of clean quarters and filthy 



Fig. 85.—A sow with a good litter of pigs. 


wallows have been known to start sickness. If hogs 
have a cool place, they do not need to wallow in the 
mud. Their drinking water should be clean. Over¬ 
feeding after a period of hunger often causes trouble 
and should be avoided by providing a regular supply 
of food. Salt, ashes, charcoal, and lime placed in a 
pan or box where the porkers have access to it, will pro¬ 
vide about the best tonic. 

If the hogs should become sick, they should be re¬ 
moved from the herd and observed carefully. If the 
whole herd is not doing well, it might be best to change 
them to another field or lot. 










HOGS 


121 



Fig. 86— Portable hoghouse. 



Fig 87 -An inexpensive hog oiler. The rope is kept covered with heavy oil. 

a xu* ^» r r - r , 1 _ i >-v,l 1*7^11 irvfr* filrm 












122 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Lice.—If you notice the pigs rubbing against posts, 
you may look carefully behind their ears and see small 
lice crawling about. They rob the pigs of much vital¬ 
ity and cause them much discomfort. An application 
of heavy oil or the use of hog oiler will rid them of 
lice. 

Worms.—When the hair on the back of a hog becomes 
rough, when his ears begin to droop, and his tail is 


Fig. 88—Worms hinder the growth of pigs. These sick pigs need clean 
surroundings and treatment for worms. 

no longer curled, it is evident that he is not doing well. 
No matter how much he eats, his weight does not in¬ 
crease. The hog is probably infected with worms. He 
should have access to salt and charcoal, with the ad¬ 
dition of a little copperas. If he does not get rid of 
the worms, a capsule of worm medicine should be given 
by a veterinarian. 

Scours.—Over-feeding of rich foods causes scouring 
more than anything else. Unsanitary surroundings may 
also cause bowel troubles. The restriction of rich protein 




HOGS 


123 


foods and a light dose of copperas will prevent serious 
trouble. 



Fig. 89.—Hog cholera immunization. The pig is placed in a special trough so 
that he cannot squirm during the operation. 


Hog Cholera.— A contagious disease should be 
avoided by preventing the pigs coming into contact with 
others that might be diseased. Immunization is the 
accepted form of preventing hog cholera. A veterina- 






124 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

rian can vaccinate the whole herd in a short time, mak¬ 
ing them immune from cholera as long as the hogs live. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are hogs important on the farm? 

2. Why is the hog of to-day different from the old razor-back? 


Fig. 90— Pig club pigs. One of these pigs weighed four hundred pounds at 
eight months of age. 

3. Describe the Duroc hogs. 

4. What are the peculiar markings of a Hampshire? 

5. How are hogs registered? 

6. What is a scrub? 

7. Tell why he is not profitable. 

8. Describe a good type of market hog. 

9. Discuss the proper feeding of the hogs. 

10. How old is a pig when he is weaned? 

11. Prepare a list of grain and green feed used for feeding hogs. 




HOGS 


125 


12. Discuss “hogging off” in relation to finishing hogs for the 
market. 

13. When is a hog ready for market? 

14. Why should boys join pig clubs? 

15. How many litters of pigs does a good sow produce in one 
year? 

16. Name one serious disease of hogs. Tell how it may be 
controlled. 

17. How would you rid hogs of lice? 

18. What would you do for worms in hogs? 

19. Give five rules to follow in keeping the quarters for hogs 
clean. 

20. Name some mineral feeds good for hogs. 

21. Why should farmers kill and cure their own meat? 

PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: To study hogs upon the home farm. 

Material: Notebook, hogs, hog-pens, lots. 

Procedure: 1. What kinds of hogs are kept at your home? 

2. State the number of hogs kept at your home. 

3. For what purpose are the hogs raised? 

4. How large are the pens? 

5. Give the dimensions of the troughs in which they are fed. 

6. W T hat kind of feed is used in feeding the hogs? 

7. What kinds of shelters are furnished for them? 

8. Examine them to find if they are lousy. 

Results: Write a report of your study, to be read in the class. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To decide which is the best breed of hogs. 

Materials: Information regarding the breeds of hogs. Bulle¬ 
tins, farm papers, and books. 

Procedure: Choose four students, two defending one breed 
and two another breed. Obtain all the information possible from 
your home and from other sources. Arrange for a date for the 
debate. Invite the county agricultural agent and your parents 
to act as judges. 


126 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED' 

Bacon. The sides of a pig, salted and smoked. 

Capsule. A small container of a digestible material for holding 
medicine. 

Carcass. The trunk of a slaughtered animal. 

Copperas. A chemical preparation of iron used as a tonic. 
Crossbred. Produced by mixing breeds or varieties. 

Evident. That which is easily seen. 

Herd. A number of beasts assembled together. 

Immunization. To render animals free from disease by vac¬ 
cination. 

Litter. The young pigs born to a sow at one time. 

Mongrel. An animal of mixed breeding, of no particular 
breeding. 

Protein. Feed adapted to the growth of muscle and bone; a 
compound of nitrogen. 

Registration. The act of enrolling or making a record. 

Scours. A watery discharge from the digestive tract. 
Specidation. Taking chances or risk in business. 

Tankage. A waste meat product. 

Tonic. A medicine used for increasing strength or vigor. 
Underline. The lower border of the flanks of a domestic 
animal. 

Wallows. A place where hogs roll in the mud. 

REFERENCES 

“Systems of Hog Farming,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 
'985. 

“Feeding Hogs in the South,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 411. 

“Hog Houses,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 438. 

“Breeds of Swine,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 765. 

“Hog Cholera,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 834. 

“Hogs for Pork and Profit,” Int. Harvester Bui. 1922. 

American Berkshire Association, Springfield Ill. 


HOGS 


127 


NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE REG¬ 
ISTRATION OF PURE BRED HOGS 

Address The Secretary, 

American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders’ Association, Union Stock- 
yards, Chicago. 

American Hampshire Swine Record Association, Peoria, Ill. 
American Large Black Pig Society, Lexington, Ky. 

American Poland-China Record Company, Transportation Bldg., 
Chicago. 

American Tamworth Swine Record Association, Carthage, Ill. 
American Yorkshire Club, White Bear Lake, Minn. 

Cheshire Swine Breeders’ Association, Freeville, N. Y. 

Chester White Record Association, Rochester, Ind. 

Improved Small Yorkshire Club of America, Espyville, Pa. 
National Chester White Record Association, West Chester, Pa. 
National Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders’ Association, Peoria, Ill. 
National Mulefoot Hog Record Association, Degraff, Ohio. 
National Poland-China Record Association, Winchester, Ind. 
National Spotted Poland-China Record Association, Bainbridge, 
Indiana. 

0. I. C. Swine Breeders’ Association, Goshen, Ind. 

Standard Poland-China Record Company, Maryville, Mo. 

United States Small Yorkshire Association, California, Mich. 


CHAPTER X 


POULTRY 

Poultry raising has made rapid progress during the 
past few years and is now considered one of the most 
important and profitable branches of American Agricul¬ 
ture. It is a phase of livestock production that is well 
adapted to the small backyard as well as to all sizes and 
types of farms. It is a business that offers work for 
boys and girls and adults of the home. The government, 
schools, and agricultural workers are cooperating with 
farmers and home owners in the production of “more and 
better poultry,” in order that they may supply their 
tables with meat and eggs and have a surplus to sell. 

Home Projects in Poultry.—The ambitious boy or 
girl who is interested in animals and wants to do some¬ 
thing for himself will find opportunity in poultry raising. 
It is not necessary that a beginner have a great amount 
of capital or a thorough knowledge of poultry before 
making a start. One may start on a small scale with a 
few dollars and learn as he works. 

Source of Stock.—Birds may be secured by buying 
several settings of eggs, baby chicks, or mature fowls. 
In purchasing birds or eggs, it is important that the 
parent stock should be purebred, true to description, free 
from disease, and strong and vigorous. The baby chicks 
and mature birds that you are thinking of buying should 
show marks of good breeding, proper care, good vitality, 
and uniformity of size. 


128 



POULTRY 


129 


Poultry Equipment.— The houses, coops, small runs, 
and yards may be built out of durable material at a very 
reasonable cost provided that you will do the work your¬ 
self. 

Familiar Breeds of Poultry 

Chickens. 

Meat Breeds: 

Black and White Langshan. 

Cochin. 

Brahma. 

Egg Breeds: 

White, Buff, and Brown Leghorns. 

Black, Buff, and White Minorcas. 

General Purpose Breeds: 

Barred, White, and Buff Plymouth Rocks. 

White, Golden, and Silver Penciled Wyandottes. 

Buff, White, and Black Orpingtons. 

Rhode Island Reds. 

Dominique. 

Ornamental Breeds: 

Games. 

Bantams. 

Turkeys: 

Bronze. 

Narragansett. 

Buff Bourbon Red. 

Slate. 

White Holland. 

Black. 

Geese: 

Gray Toulouse. 

Brown and White Chinese Geese. 

Gray Wild Goose. 

Ducks: 

White Pekin. 

Indian Runner. 

Colored Rouen. 



Fig. 91.—Black Langshans. 



Fig. 92.—Light Brahmas. 





Fig. 96.—Rhode Island Reds. 


Fig. 94.—Buff Orpingtons. 


Fig. 93.—Barred 


Rocks. 






Fig. 99.—Indian Runner Ducks. Fig. 100.—White Pekin Ducks. 





* 

fOPrniw r 19a 
CMA6.L, STILES 
coLvna^i, o. c 


Fig. 101.—Bronze Turkeys, 



Fig. 102.—Gray Geese. 
















132 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Guineas: 

Pearl. 

What kind of poultry shall I raise?—We have no 
best varieties of poultry. Raise the kind of chickens, 
turkeys, geese, or ducks that you like best. If you will 
do this, you will likely succeed because you will find 
pleasure, joy, and profit in your work. 

We find many advantages however, if all the people 
in a given community raise the same breed of poultry, 



Fig. 103.—A community poultry project. The farmers bring the eggs in crates 
ready for making a large shipment. 


because they may organize and cooperate in breeding 
up their flocks and sell high grade products. 

Selecting Eggs for Hatching.—In selecting eggs for 
hatching avoid eggs that are of odd shape and size. 

Experience shows that small, round or extremely long 
eggs will not hatch well. The shell should not be ridged 
or show rough spots of lime. They should be uniform in 
color and free from light spots when held before a light. 
Exercise care in culling out all dirty eggs and eggs with 
cracked shells. (Fig. 20.) 




POULTRY 


133 


Proper Care of Hatching Eggs.—Eggs intended for 
hatching should not be stored in a very cold or hot room. 
The best plan is to collect them from the nest daily and 
store them in a cool place. Turn them regularly and set 
them soon after they are laid. 

Selecting Broody Hens.—When choosing hens for 
hatching eggs and caring for baby chicks, it is important 
that they should be persistent sitters, of medium size, and 
motherly instinct. The meat breeds are too large and 



Fig. 104.—Sitting hen, placed in a barrel where she will not be disturbed. 


clumsy for incubating eggs because they crush a large 
percentage of them in getting on and off the nest. They 
are' also poor rustlers and will step on the young chicks 
and kill them in the coops. The egg breeds do not make 
good mothers for hatchings eggs or brooding chicks be¬ 
cause of their size and nervous disposition. Plymouth 
Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red hens, weigh¬ 
ing from six to nine pounds, make excellent brood hens 
that will cover from thirteen to fifteen eggs. They also 
hover their chickens well and are good rustlers and care¬ 
ful mothers. 





134 


elementary agriculture 


The Best Place to Set Hens.—Hens should not be 
set where other hens will lay to them and worry them. 
They like a dark nest in some secluded spot sheltered 
from rain and well protected from dogs and other harm¬ 
ful animals. Probably you have noticed that the hen 
that steals away from the flock and builds her nest on the 
ground hatches a fine brood of baby chicks. 

Preparing Nests for Setting Hens.—A good barrel 
placed on its side, chocked with brick or rock makes a 



Fig. 105.—A dust wallow for hens. 

good place to build a nest for the hen. A box or keg will 
serve the purpose provided they are large enough to give 
the hen ample room and proper ventilation. 

In building the nest, first place several shovels of soil 
in the barrel, box, or keg. Round out a nest in the dirt 
as though you were going to place in the eggs. Line the 
dirt nest with finely chopped hay. It is now ready to 
receive the hen and the eggs. 

Test the Broody Hen.—After preparing the nest for 
the hen, go to the place where she is trying to sit and 
transfer her to the new nest after dark. First set her on 
several artificial eggs or eggs that have been culled from 



POULTRY 


135 


the hatching eggs. Let her sit in her new quarters a few 
days to see if she will hold her nest. If she proves to be 
a persistent sitter, remove the eggs first placed under her 
and replace them with thirteen or fifteen carefully 
selected eggs. It is advisable to set several hens at the 
same time so that if some of the eggs prove to be infertile 
or if you get a poor hatch you can shift the eggs or give 
all the chicks to one hen. 



Fig. 106.—An egg candler, showing three inexpensive methods of making an 
egg candler. 

Care of Broody Hens.—Hens that are sitting should 
be fed, watered and allowed exercise. It is a good plan to 
have the hens leave their nests about the same time each 
day. If they will not leave of their own accord they 
should be removed carefully. They will usually return to 
their nest before the eggs chill, but it is advisable to 
watch them and see that they return to the right nest. 
Place the feed and water near the nest so the birds will 
not have to rustle for their food. 

If you will place wood ashes to which a little sodium 
flouride or snuff has been added, in a box or old tub and 



136 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


set it near the hen’s nest, she will take a-dust bath and 
keep herself free from lice and mites. 

In feeding broody hens, whole grain such as wheat and 
corn is best. Place the grain in straw litter near the nest, 
in order to make the hens take exercise while eating. 

In case the hen breaks an egg in the nest the shell 
should be removed, the soiled eggs washed in tepid water 
and new nest material put in. 

Dust the hen two or three times during the hatch with 
some good insect powder to destroy and prevent lice and 
mites. Do not dust after the 19th day of incubation. 
The eggs should not be disturbed after this time, and the 
powders may be harmful to the newly hatched chicks. 

Testing Eggs.—Hen eggs will incubate in twenty- 
one days. It is profitable, however, to test the eggs on 
the seventh and fourteenth days and remove all infertile 
eggs and those with dead germs. There are several prac¬ 
tical ways of testing eggs during the process of incuba¬ 
tion. If you have access to electric lights, place an oat¬ 
meal box with an opening cut in the side about the size 
of a silver dollar, over the light globe. Place the eggs 
before the opening. If they are clear, after incubating 
seven days, they are infertile and should be removed and 
saved for feeding the baby chicks. Another practical 
way to candle eggs is to take a shoe box and cut a hole 
in one end about the size of a silver dollar and another 
in the lid about the same size. Stand the box on the end 
and place a lighted candle on the inside. Put on the lid 
and tie a cord around it. 

Artificial Incubation of Eggs.—There are several 
makes of incubators on the market today that have been 
successful in the hatching of baby chicks. If you intend 
setting an incubator, it is best to secure a copy of the 
directions for setting up and operating the kind of ma- 


POULTRY 


137 


chine that you are going to set. Study the directions 
carefully and get the machine in proper running order 
before attempting to put the eggs in it. 

Care of the Hen and Chicks.—As soon as the hatch 
is completed the hen and the baby chicks should be 
transferred to a brood coop similar to the one shown in 
Fig. 28 and given access to fresh water and clean sand. 



Fig. 107.—A commercial incubator, in which the electric current heats the 
water, maintaining a uniform temperature. 

Baby chicks should not be fed for thirty-six to forty- 
eight hours after hatching. For the first few days they 
should be fed sparingly, hard boiled eggs and dry oat¬ 
meal. Sour milk and charcoal should be placed where 
the chicks may eat. When the little birds are five or 
six days old, you may begin feeding them finely crushed 
corn and wheat or commercial baby chick feed. Green 
feed such as sprouted oats, young turnips, lettuce, and 
rape should be fed in small quantities, if the chickens do 



138 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


not have access to a green run. As soon as the chicks 
are large enough to eat whole wheat they should be fed 
a mixture of wheat and corn chops. Also keep a good 
mash mixture and sour milk before them. 


Egg Production 

Dry Mash Mixture 
Wheat bran 100 pounds. 
Shorts 100 pounds. 

Meal 100 pounds. 

Meat scraps 20 pounds. 


Ration for 


Scratch Feed 
Oats 100 pounds. 

Wheat 100 pounds. 

Corn Chops 100 pounds. 


Mix the grain feed in a bin and feed the fowls in a 
straw litter morning and night, giving them what they 
will eat without waste. Prepare the mash and feed in the 
hoppers so the chickens may eat at will. If you have a 
supply of clabber or sour milk on hand the meat scraps 
may be omitted from the ration. Laying hens should 
have access to green feed, fresh water, and plenty of grit. 


Important Poultry Diseases 


White Diarrhea is the most deadly disease among 
baby chicks. It may be seen in young chicks from a day 
old to thirty days of age. They have a tendency to 
huddle together, appear lifeless, sleepy, indifferent and 
refuse to eat. The droppings which are of a white cream 
color adhere to the body. The plumage looses its luster 
and the bird droops its wings. 

It is not practical and profitable to treat the sick birds 
with medicines. Disinfect the quarters and kill and burn 
all badly diseased birds. Keep sour milk or buttermilk 
before the chicks. 

Roup is another serious disease among poultry. In¬ 
fected birds refuse to eat and stand off from the rest of 
the flock. Close examination will show a watery dis- 


POULTRY 


139 


charge from the nasal openings. The eye lids are swollen 
and are held closed. The fowl has fever and appears 
dull and listless. 

If the bird has roup bathe the infected parts with a 
mixture of boric acid and water. Use one ounce of pow¬ 
dered boric acid to one quart of water. Permanganate of 
potash may be used- The solution is prepared by dis¬ 
solving as many crystals as will remain on the surface 
of a silver dime in one gallon of water. 



Fig. 108.—A chicken with white diarrhea. 


Chicken Pox is a very familiar disease in the poultry 
flock in the South. 

When it makes its appearance one may notice little 
nodules on the comb and wattles. The birds refuse to 
eat and lose flesh. 

Treatment.—Rub carbolated vaseline or glycerine 
on the sores. 

Care and Management of Sick Birds.—The first 
thing to do in case some of your birds become diseased is 







140 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


to separate them from the healthy birds. Clean up the 
premises and disinfect the yards, houses, and feeding 
equipment with some good disinfectant. Sterilize the 
drinking fountains and give each adult bird one half tea¬ 
spoonful of salts in the drinking water. Put one tea- 
spoonful of carbolic acid in one gallon of water and place 
it where the birds will be forced to drink it. Feed and 
treat the sick fowls at some time other than when you 
are caring for the healthy birds. 





Fig. 109.—A chicken with the roup. 


Culling Poultry.—Culling is an effort to reduce the 
number of mongrels and non-profitable fowls on 
American farms. Many chickens and other kinds of 
poultry will not pay for their keep, it should be the 
business of every good poultry keeper to improve his 
flock for higher egg yield and better meat production. 

Time to Cull and Problems Involved.—The best 
time to cull is during the months of July and August. 
Some of the phases of culling are as follows; 





POULTRY 


141 


1. Select the breed and variety. 

2. Select the best fowls in mating for the breeding pens. 

3. Cull out the inferior eggs before incubation in Feb¬ 
ruary and March. 

4. Cull the day old baby chicks. 

5. Cull out chicks that make poor growth. 



Fig. 110.—A. Poor hen. B. Good hen. 


6. Do not select summer chicks for producing layers or 
breeding stock. 

7. Cull Fall pullets. 

8. Cull inferior cockerels and cocks. 

9. Cull defective and diseased birds. 

10. Cull the hens. 

In culling hens you will find that the hens that are 
laying will have a red, swollen soft comb and wattles. 
The pelvic or lay bones will be wide enough apart to lay 
from two to three fingers between them. The fowls are 
active and the eyes are bright. The vent will be wide, 
smooth and soft. If the hens have been laying for some 




142 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



time the vent will be bluish white just inside the rim. 
The shanks will be flat, white and thin looking. The 
toe nails will be short and the feathers ragged and worn. 

The high producing hens in the flock will have a small 
head, prominent eyes, thin eye lids, large body capacity, 
thin skin, and soft pliable abdomen. The pelvic bones 
also bend easily and are thin and straight. The yellow 
pigment disappears from the shanks after the hens have 
been laying from four to six months. 


Fig. 111. —Poultry marketing. Note the feeding troughs at the sides of the 
crates. 

Marketing Poultry Products.—In producing market 
eggs, infertile eggs keep best and generally bring better 
prices on the market. These eggs may be collected daily, 
graded, and packed in one dozen cartons or egg cases and 
sold directly to the consumer, retail merchants, hotels, 
wholesale houses, or commission houses. Where the pro¬ 
duction is small it will pay best to secure a few good cus¬ 
tomers and sell to them directly. 

In selling broilers, friers, and roasters it is best to raise 













POULTRY 


143 


some general purpose breeds. In order to receive the 
highest price for them they should be ready to market 
early in the season. The fowls should be fat and in good 
condition for the table. 

Hens and mature male birds may be marketed at any 
season of the year. You may study the market quota¬ 
tions for the past few years and find it advisable-to fatten 
hens before selling them. 

Another avenue for marketing poultry is by selling 
hatching eggs, day old chicks, pullets and mature fowls. 
If you are raising purebred poultry you will find this 
phase of the business profitable. 

In selling any kind of poultry product you should re¬ 
member that it pays to produce the best, pack or finish 
it properly, advertise, be dependable, and guarantee your 
products. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the study of poultry important? 

2. Name several successful poultry keepers in your community. 

3. Classify the breeds of poultry studied in your text and 
state several advantages of each. 

4. How long does it take hen eggs, duck eggs, goose eggs, and 
turkey.eggs to hatch? 

5. Tell how to make a good hen’s nest and set a hen. 

6. Tell how to feed and care for the baby chicks. When does 
the chick make the most rapid gain in his life? 

7. Classify the feeds used for feeding poultry. What kinds 
of feeds are used on the farm? Why is corn a poor feed for 
hens when fed alone? Is it a good idea to feed hens fresh rabbit 
meat? Name several feeds that are rich in egg-building food. 

8. What is the use of grit in the hen’s diet? Name some 
sources of grit for the farm flock. 

9. How would you test eggs to see if they are fertile? At 
what temperature should hatching eggs be kept? Explain the 
selection of eggs for hatching. Prepare a list of poultry diseases, 
state symptoms, and recommend the proper treatment. 

10. Write a good paper on the marketing of poultry. 


144 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To study the parts of a chicken. 

Material: A hen, and a cockbird, a small coop or box, note¬ 
book, tablet. 

Procedure: Place the hen upon a table or box before the 
class. Locate the comb, points wattles, hackle, shank, fluff, 
feathers, primary feathers, and beak. Describe the color of the 
eyes. Weigh the hen. Does the hen belong to an egg breed, 
a meat breed, or a general purpose breed? 

Note the same points regarding the male bird. 

Study various breeds of chickens, if time will permit. (The 
word “Poultry” in Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.) 

Exercise 2 

Object: To prepare poultry posters for school room. 

Material: Large pieces of cardboard, old farm journals and 
poultry magazines. 

Procedure: Cut out pictures of poultry, poultry houses, poul¬ 
try feeds, and poultry club work. Paste these neatly upon the 
cardboard and hang them in the school room. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Artificial. Produced by human skill in contrast to natural. 

Broilers. A small chicken weighing from three-quarters to one 
and one-half pounds. 

Chocked. To make fast. 

Clabber. The solid part of soured milk. 

Cockerel. A young male chicken less than one year of age. 

Cock Bird. A male chicken over one year of age. 

Commission house. The place where the products are sent to 
be sold by an agent. 

Disinfectant. A substance adapted for destroying bacteria and 
disease germs. 

Frier. A chicken used for frying. 

Grit. Crushed rock or stone used in feeding poultry. 

Home Project. Work done at home by the student as a part 
of his school work. 

Infertile. Not fertile, withput proper germ for hatching. 


POULTRY 


145 


Instinct. A natural or inborn inclination to do things. 

Listless. Dull without life and inattention. 

Mash. A mixture of ground grain bran and the like. 

Nodules. Small knot-like growths upon the comb of chickens. 
Pelvic. Projections from the bones to which the legs of the 
hen are attached. 

Persistent. Having staying or enduring qualities. 

Phase. A particular division or branch; as poultry is a phase 
of livestock. 

Roasters. A matured fowl suited for roasting. 

Rustlers. An alert, energetic animal. 

Shanks. A portion of the chicken’s leg below hock. 

Tepid. Moderately warm, not hot. 

Vent. The opening of the intestines out to the surface of the 

body. 

REFERENCES 

“Poultry for the Farm and Home,” International Harvester Co., 
Chicago, 1921. 

“Standard Varieties of Chickens,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ 
Bui. 898. 

The following bulletins may be procured from the United 
States Department of Agriculture: 

“Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post,” Bui. 830. 

“The Community Egg Circle,” Bui. 656. 

“Important Poultry Diseases,” Bui. 530. 

“Hints to Poultry Raisers,” Bui. 538. 

“Mites and Lice on Poultry,” Bui. 810. 

“Turkey Raising,” Bui. 791. 

“Goose Raising,” Bui. 767. 

“Backyard Poultry Keeping,” Bui. 1431. 


CHAPTER XI 


“THE SOIL” 

The Foundation of Farming.—Successful farming 
depends to a great extent on the kind of soil. The old 
familiar saying, “A fertile soil means a prosperous peo¬ 
ple,” is as true today as in the times of our forefathers. 
Well do we remember the stories of the early settlers 
who tilled the virgin soils with little thought of wast¬ 
ing plant food which future generations might need. 
Today farmers find themselves face to face with the 
problem of building up soil in order that they may be 
farmed at a profit. If our future farmers must come 
from the ranks of the school children of today, it is 
important that the boys and girls should receive train¬ 
ing in the fundamentals which will aid them in the 
production of food, clothing, and shelter. 

Soil and Subsoil.—The loose surface layer of the 
crust of the earth is called soil. The bed or layer of 
weathered material which underlies the top soil and 
extends to the bed rock is called the subsoil. The top 
soil is darker in color and looser in structure than the 
subsoil. These conditions are due largely to the pres¬ 
ence of decayed plant and animal bodies. The sub¬ 
soil is generally lighter in color than the soil and the 
particles are finer and more closely united. It holds 
more moisture than the soil and serves an important 
part in supplying plants with moisture and food. Good 
agricultural soil supports plants, serves as a storehouse 
for heat, water, and food. 


146 


THE SOIL’ 


147 


Sources of Soil Material.—Soil material comes from 
inorganic and organic matter. By inorganic matter 
we mean material that is made from the decomposi¬ 
tion of rocks, by such agents as water, air, and heat. 
The organic matter or humus is the remains of de¬ 
cayed plants and animals. The greater part of cul¬ 
tivated soil is made up of inorganic matter and does 
not require as much of our time and attention as 
the humus supply in the soil. (Fig. 112, Soil Materials). 



'IG 112.—Soil materials, air, water, plants, and heat working to breaK up xne 
rocks into finer particles. 


Soil Building Forces.—There are many forces such 
as water, wind, ice, heat, cold, frost, plants and animals, 
and elements in the atmosphere that are working hard 
day and night, breaking, grinding, transporting and de¬ 
caying the solid rock of the earth’s surface. Let us 
summarize briefly the special work done by our princi- 
pal weathering agencies. 

Water pounds, grinds, and carries material from 
place to place. It also penetrates large pieces of rock, 




148 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

freezes, thaws and bursts its object into many small 
fragments. Ice also forms into great glaciers or ava¬ 
lanches. The movement and pressure breaks, grinds, 
and transports soil particles. Wind is another one 
of our soil builders. It carries on its work by picking 
up fine sand and blowing it against giant boulders and 
gradually cutting them away. Plants send their roots 
into the crevices of rocks and pry the material apart. 
Animals burrow into the ground and open up channels 
where water and elements of the air enter and cause 
changes in the soil. 



Fig. 113.—Types of soil, clay, sand, loam. 


Soils Classified as to Formation.—The two principal 

classes of soils according to the method of formation 
are the sedentary and transported. The sedentary soil 
is further divided for convenience of study into what 
is known as residual and cumulose soil. The residual 
soil is soil that remains where it is formed by weath¬ 
ering forces. This type of soil represents some of our 
poorer soils as well as some of our better farm lands. 
The limestone and sandy soils that are found in some 
of our Southern states are good examples of this class 
of soils. Cumulose soil is formed by the accumulation 
of waste materials in shallow lakes, or other low places. 






THE SOIL’ 


149 


This kind of soil is good for truck gardening if it is 
drained properly and fertilized. 

The transported soils are represented by four special 
classes; namely, alluvial, glacial, aeolian, and colluvial 



Fig. 114 a—Plant food removed. The Kupies are carrying nitrogen, phos¬ 
phorus and potash from the barnyard and floating it downstream. They are 
not usually visible but work in the streams of water. 


soil. Alluvial soil is formed by the sediment which is 
carried by water and deposited along the rivers of 
our country. These soils are commonly called bottom 
land and are very fertile. Large areas of alluvial soil 
are found in the United States. Glacial soils are formed 









150 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


by ice and are found principally in states that are 
north of the Ohio and east of the Missouri Rivers. 
Glacial soil is one of our oldest soils and is very fertile. 
It composes the soil of the North Central states, which 
is commonly known as the great corn belt. Aeolian 
soil or wind formed soil is a fine, deep, fertile soil of 
our western prairies. The “bluff” soils along the Mis¬ 
sissippi River are also of wind formation. Colluvial 
soils are soils that are formed at the foot of hills or 
mountains. After the weathering agencies have com¬ 
pleted their work, gravity transports the material to 
the lower areas. This type of soil is very coarse in 
structure and lacking in organic matter. Colluvial 
soils are well adapted to the growing of fruits. 

Soils Classified as to Properties.—The practical 
farmer classifies soils according to the properties that 
are related to crop production. These properties are 
largely controlled by the amount of sand, clay, silt, 
and humus which enter into the composition of soils. 
If the percent of sand in a soil is greater than the 
amount of silt, clay, or humus, we have a sandy soil. 
If the percent of clay is greater we have a clay soil. 
Other kinds of soils are named in similar manner. 
Loam soil, consisting of a mixture of sand, silt, clay, 
and humus, is one of our best Agricultural soils. There 
are several classes of loam such as heavy clay loam, 
clay loam, sandy clay loam, and light sandy loam. The 
percent of sand in loam may vary from ten percent 
in heavy clay loam to ninety percent in light sandy 
loams. 

Size of Soil Particles Important.—The size of the 
soil particles governs the air circulation, heating, water 
holding power, drainage, and fertility of soils. If the 


THE SOIL’ 


151 


soil is composed of large rock particles the more space 
we have between them for the entrance of air, heat, and 
the passage of water. The sandy soils are good exam¬ 
ples of the open porous types of soil. The clay soils 
with their fine rock particles, close together, and having 
poor drainage are known as the tight waxy soils. The 



Fig. 114b.—Plant food removed. Seven loads of cotton seed contains much 
valuable plant food. 


sandy soils are well adapted to the growing of truck 
crops, fruit, peanuts, and potatoes and the clay soils 
produce abundant yields of hay and grain. 

Heavy and Light Soils. — The terms heavy and light 
soils are not used with reference to the weight of the 
soil but to the working condition of the soil. One cubic 
foot of sand is heavier than a cubic foot of clay, but 
sandy soils are called light soils because they are easy 
to work. Clay soils are sticky, compact, and require 
more animal and man power to work them. 




152 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Sour Soils.—Acid or sour soils are found in the humid 
regions and are formed by the decay of organic matter 
without a sufficient supply of free oxygen. Such crops 
as cowpeas, clover, soy beans, and alfalfa do not thrive 
well on acid soils. But the acidity of the soil may be 
corrected by applying two tons of finely ground lime¬ 
stone per acre. 

Alkali Soils.—In semi-arid regions we find alkali 
spots which were formed by the evaporation of water 



Fig. 115.—Soil and subsoil. The shovel points to the line where the light 
clay begins. The upper portion is top soil. 


from the soil which was charged with alkali salts leav¬ 
ing the deposit in the surface soil. Since the quantity 
in these places does not generally prevent crop growth 
during years of sufficient rainfall it is advisable to 
improve the land by plowing under a heavy application 
of barnyard manure. 

Water in Soils.—The water which enters the soil 
after a heavy rain or the melting of snow and ice which 
passes down through the loose earth and drains away 
in the form of springs, is known as a free, or gravity 




THE SOW 


153 


water. Free water should not come within several feet 
of the soil as plants do not use this form of moisture 
and it is harmful to growing crops. After the free water 
has passed through the soil and found its outlet in 



Fig. 116 .— Capillary rise of water. The tube on the left shows the soil placed 
in water. Those in the center indicate the method of tying a cloth over the 
soil tube before placing it into the water. Lamp chimneys will do as well as 
these glass tubes. 

springs, wells, and small creeks, there remains a thin 
film about each soil particle known as film, or capillary 
water. Plants use this kind of water and it is important 
that the farmer should aid nature in controlling it. 
Besides the free and film water a third kind of water 
















154 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


occurs in soil. This moisture is absorbed and retained 
by the soil particles and is known as hygroscopic water. 
Its presence may be detected by heating air dried soil. 

How Plants Use Water— Water is one of the great¬ 
est limiting factors in the growth and maturity of crops. 
It serves as a solvent and carrier of plant food to the 
root system. Water containing elements of plant food 
moves through the stem of plants and carries its load 
to the leaves where crude food is made into finished 
products. Some of the water passes through the open¬ 
ings in the leaves of plants and regulates the temper¬ 
ature around the plant while other quantities of water 
enter into the formation of sugar and starch. Water 
also serves as a carrier of compounds formed in the 
leaves to the proper place in the plant body. 

How Plant Food Is Removed From Farm Lands.— 

1. The farmer sells his plant food in form of crops. 

2. By allowing the surface water to carry away the 
best tillable soil. 

3. By failing to grow legumes, such as cowpeas, clover, 
and soy beans. 

4. By not raising livestock to consume cheap and 
waste feeds on the farm. 

5. By raising the same crop year after year. 

How Farm Soils May Be Made More Productive.— 
Terrace and drain the land. Practice fall plowing. 
Raise more livestock and market the crops through them. 
Practice crop rotation. Add lime and practice timely 
and thorough cultivation. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the study of soil important? 

2. W T hy should school children study about soils? 

3. Explain the terms soil and subsoil. Also state the use of 
each to the plant. 


“THE SOIL ” 155 

4. Name three forms of matter. What is inorganic and 
organic matter? Give examples of each. 

5. Name nine soil builders and tell how each works on rock. 

6. Write out the classes and subclasses of soils according to 
the method of formation. 

7. Why are alluvial soils very fertile? 

8. How are farm soils named? What is humus? 

9. Why will clay soils hold more water than sandy soils? 
Name some plants that do well on clay and sandy soils. 

10. What are heavy and light soils? Explain fully. 

11. Explain the formation of sour or acid soils. How may 
acid soils be improved? 

12. How are alkali soils formed? How may they be improved? 

13. State several ways by which plant food is lost from the soil. 

14. How may our farms lands be made more productive? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: A field study of soils in your community. 

Materials Needed: Post-hole digger, yardstick, tapeline, fruit 
jars, stakes, hatchet, notebook. 

Procedure: 1. Lay out an acre tract of land near the school 
and mark it off with four comer stakes. Record the location 
and the measurements of one acre of land. 

2. Take the post-hole digger and begin digging. As, soon as 
the color of the soil changes, record the depth of the soil and 
reasons for its color. Fill one of the fruit jars with a sample 
of the soil. Then continue digging until you have gone from 
two to three feet deep. Note the color of the subsoil. Why is 
it moist? Collect a sample of the subsoil in fruit jar No. 2 to 
be used later in the class room. Repeat this operation, taking 
samples from three other places on the acre tract. Keep the 
jars covered and store them at the school building for future 
study. 

3. Estimate the average depth of the soil on the acre of land 
studied. Why is the soil deeper and different in color in the 
places where samples were collected? 

4. Carefully study the soils and subsoils on several of the best 
farms in your community. Compare the soils and subsoils of 
bottom land with soils and subsoils of hilly lands, 


156 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Exercise 2 

Object: To demonstrate how water deposits its load. 

Materials: Fruit jars, soil and subsoil samples collected in 
Exercise 1, two small vessels holding one gallon each. 

Procedure: Pour all the soil samples collected in Exercise 1 
together and mix them thoroughly. This will give you a uniform 
sample of soil. In similar manner mix the different subsoils 
together. 

2. Put a small amount of soil in one quart jar and the same 
amount of subsoil in another. Cover and shake the jars vigor¬ 
ously. Set aside and allow them to settle for several days. 

Results: What size particles does the water deposit after 
shaking? Why do we always find large boulders at the beginning 
of a stream? Tell why water deposits its load in layers. Which 
contains the greater amount of clay, soil or subsoil? 

Exercise 3 

Object: To show how moisture rises in soils. 

Materials: Three lamp chimneys, pieces of cloth large enough 
to tie over the ends of the chimneys, string, a vessel to stand the 
chimneys in, and enough dry sand, clay, and leaf mold which has 
been screened through a piece of gravel screen, to fill each chim¬ 
ney. 

Procedure: Tie the cloth on the base of each chimney, fill each 
with a different sample of soil and set them in the shallow vessel 
prepared to hold them. (Fig. 116.) 

Results: In which soil does the water rise most rapidly? Give 
reasons for your answer. 

Exercise 4 

Object: To demonstrate that organic matter gives color to soil. 

Material: An old shovel, a place for burning the soil, and a 
sample of good loam soil. 

Procedure: Burn a small sample of the soil collected in Exer¬ 
cise 1 for several hours. 

Results: Compare the burned soil with some of the original 
material. (Note: this exercise may be worked out by some of the 
older boys at home and the material returned to the school for 
study in class.) 


“THE SOIL” 


157 


Exercise 5 

Object: To test soil for acidity. 

Material: Soil samples, water, glasses, and red and blue litmus 
paper. 

Procedure: Make up a ball of soil similar to a common mud 
ball. Split the ball and insert a piece of red and a piece of blue 
litmus paper. 

Results: If the blue paper turns red the soil is sour. If the red 
paper turns blue it is alkaline. If the red or blue paper retains its 
color the soil is neutral. Repeat the test using lime water and 
vinegar. 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Alkali. Soda, ash or salt that is harmful to land. 

Avalanche. A large mass of snow and ice sliding down the 
mountain side. 

Humid. Containing moisture or vapor. 

Humus. Decayed plant and animal matter found in soil. 
Inorganic. Composed of materials other than animal or veg¬ 
etable. 

Leaf mold. Partly decayed leaves. 

Organic. That which is made up of plant and animal matter. 
Porous. Full of openings so that liquid will pass through. 
Sediment. The material deposited by water. 

Semi-arid. Having little rainfall. 

Solvent. A liquid used for dissolving a solid. 

Tilled. To plow and prepare for seed; cultivate. 

Virgin. Soil which has never been under cultivation. 
Weathering. To expose to air and other weather conditions. 

REFERENCES 

“The Soil and Its Management,” Miller, Ginn and Company, 
Boston, Mass. 


CHAPTER XII 


IMPROVING FARM LAND 

Tillage may be defined as the art of improving land 
for agricultural purposes. Good farmers realize that 
some plants such as apple trees thrive fairly well in sod 
land, but grains, fruits, vegetables, and flowers yield best 
when planted in well cultivated soils. 

Why We Till Soil.—In tilling the soil, the farmer 
has several objects in view; namely, to cut and turn up 
the soil in plowing, to bury and incorporate the organic 
matter with the soil particles, to prepare a loose, friable 
seed bed to receive the seed or plants and the distribution 
and covering of seed. 

Fall Plowing.—If the soil does not blow or wash 
badly, it may be plowed in the fall. Fall plowed land 
has many advantages over spring plowing in that it puts 
the soil in condition to catch and store up water. The 
soil particles are exposed to the weathering agencies. 
The organic matter will decay and supply plant food to 
succeeding crops. Many harmful insects will be de¬ 
stroyed, and considerable work will be out of the way 
for other farm operations. (Figure 117a, Fall Plowing.) 

Subsoiling.—Farm land may be subsoiled by plowing 
it to a depth of from five to seven inches with a good 
plow. The turning plow should be followed with a bull 
tongue or “scooter” run in the furrow behind the turning 
plow. This method loosens up the subsoil and exposes 
it to the action of the weathering agencies without bring¬ 
ing it to the surface to interfere with plant growth. 

158 


IMPROVING FARM LAND 


159 


Harrowing the Soil.—Land that is broken in the fall 
should not be harrowed or leveled but left in a rough 
condition. Usually, the first thing to do after breaking 



Fig. 117a— Fall plowing destroys weeds and insects. 



Fig. 117b.—An open ditch is suitable for draining level land. 

land at any other time is to harrow it thoroughly so as 
to scratch and break up the soil into fine particles. 

Mulching the Soil.—Mulching is the process of cul¬ 
tivating the soil after each rain so as to leave a thin 







160 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


layer of soil particles over the surface to check the 
evaporation of water. Berries and vegetables may be 
mulched with straw, leaves, or cotton seed hulls. The 
soil mulch is good and very economical. 



Fig. 118.—A tile drain will last for years and enables the farmer to till all of 
his land. 

“Farm Soils Need Organic Matter.”—In short, 

“humus is the key which unlocks the store house of soil 
fertility.” Decayed organic matter performs an impor¬ 
tant work by binding together particles in loose, sandy 
soils and by making heavy soils open and porous. Humus 





IMPROVING FARM LAND 


161 


also collects and conserves moisture, aids the growth of 
useful bacteria and furnishes food for growing plants. 
Practical plant growers realize the important function of 
humus in the soil and are working to add more of this 
material to their soils each year. 

Sources of Organic Matter.—One of the best and 
cheapest ways of adding organic matter to the soil is 
through the application of barnyard manure. The kind 
of livestock and the method of handling the manure will 



Fig. 119.—Terraces prevent washing. 


determine its value. The manure from old animals is 
richer in plant food than the manure from the young 
stock, because the old animal can not digest its food as 
well as the young animal. If the manure is thrown from 
the barn into holes, if the chickens are allowed to scratch 
it around and the rain wash out the plant food, it will be 
of little use to the farmer. The best way to apply manure 
to the soil is to haul it directly from the barn to the field 
and scatter it evenly and plow it under. Usually the best 
time to manure the soil is in the fall. Apply from 8 to 
25 tons to the acre and plow it under deeply. ,This gives 



162 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

it time to decay and become well mixed- with the soil 
particles. 

We can not rely on livestock for the production of all 
the humus needed on the farm. We must grow such 
crops as peas, clover, soy beans, and vetch and plow the 
crops under while they are green. This is known as green 
manuring. Some farmers let their land lie out to grow 
up in weeds in order that they may turn under the weeds 
to add organic matter to the soil. 



Fig. 120.—A ootton field washing away. 


Stubble, roots of plants, and old straw may be plowed 
under in the fall, and they add much organic matter to 
the soil. 

Some farmers prefer to “hog down” or “pasture off the 
crop” grown for green manure and then plow under the 
refuse and manure. By doing this, greater profit is made 
from the crop. 

Importance of Good Drainage.—Plants do not grow 
well on poorly drained soils. When free water is too 
near the surface soil, it prevents the circulation of air 
and heat into the soil and subsoil This causes the roots 





IMPROVING FARM LAND 


163 


of the growing plants to decay and their leaves turn 
yellow and soon die. Too much water in soil also aids 
the development of wilt and other fungous growth. Use¬ 
ful bacteria will not work in poorly drained soils, and 
cultivation is almost impossible. 

Kinds of Drainage.—The kinds of drainage may be 
classified as open ditch, blind ditch, and tile drains. 
(Figs. 117b-118.) The open ditch system is most widely 
used and is probably the cheapest in point of construc¬ 
tion. In preparing open ditch drains it is important that 
they should be made with the proper grade and width to 
carry the water. The narrow, deep, spade ditch is a 
menace to southern farmers in that it erodes the soil 
rapidly. The latter type of ditch is also objectionable 
when hauling from one section of the field to another. 

The blind ditch drains are constructed by first digging 
a ditch of the desired grade and width. Poles or rocks 
are then placed in the ditch and are covered over with at 
least eighteen inches of dirt. 

Tile drains are not used extensively in the South. This 
is due to cheap land, the tenant system of farming, and 
the cost of installing the drainage system. 

Terracing is the building of ridges along the hillsides 
to prevent washing and the loss of fertility. While it is 
probable that much of the water falling upon the hillside 
will run off, the terrace prevents the sudden rush of water. 
It provides a side drain which carries the excess water 
gradually away. In the meantime, the greater amount 
is^libsorfed by the soil and remains for supplying plants 
with moisture. 

Terraces are ridges some ten or twenty feet wide, at 
distances of about fifty or one hundred feet upon the 
side of the hill. These ridges are about two feet high and 
will not interfere with cultivation. These terraces are 


164 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 121.— Two types of levels. Above, a Bostrum farm level. Bplow, a 
homemade level, in which the pipe is leveled and the reading of the rod is 
marked accordingly. 





IMPROVING FARM LAND 


165 


graded to have a very gradual slope of about three to 
eight inches to the hundred feet, as shown by the illus¬ 
tration. Drains are located where it is most convenient. 
These are shallow open ditches to carry the overflow. 
(Fig. 119.) 

Commercial Fertilizers are those concentrated forms 
of plant food which are prepared in factories. Waste 
products from animals, which have been slaughtered, in¬ 
cluding bones and other parts not eaten by people, are 



Fig. 122.—Implements for terracing. 


ground and dried with limestone or other material. Bones 
contain a certain amount of phosphorus, and the meat 
and other organic materials contain nitrogen. In some 
parts of the world stone containing phosphorus is mined, 
ground, and treated with acid to make what we know as 
acid phosphate. We also have potash, a mineral mined 
in Germany, though it is also obtained from Kelp ashes, 
a form of seaweed. Nitrogen is obtained from nitrates, 
mined in Chile. A mixture of these in proportion makes 
what is known as a complete fertilizer. This should con¬ 
tain about three per cent nitrogen, twelve per cent of acid 




166 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


phosphate, and six or eight per cent of potash. Such a 
fertilizer will add much to the yield on many of our soils. 

Commercial fertilizers are applied most often at the 
time of planting the crop. Attachments have been de¬ 
vised for applying the desired number of pounds per 
acre, as the drill or planter drops the seed. If sufficient 
manure and green materials have already been plowed 
under, a light application of commercial fertilizer will 
prove beneficial. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is tillage? 

2. Give several reasons why we till soil. 

3. State the advantages of fall plowing. 

4. Tell how to subsoil land. 

5. What is the function of the harrow? 

6. Give three ways of mulching soil. 

7. Mention four ways of supplying organic matter to soil. 

8. How is good drainage established? 

9. Name three kinds of drainage and state the best kind for the 
South. 

10. What is terracing? 

11. What are natural, green, and commercial fertilizers. 

12. How are terraces laid out? 

13. Name several forms of commercial fertilizers. 

14. Give the time and method of applying commercial fer¬ 
tilizers to the soil. 

15. What are the three big problems to be considered in im¬ 
proving farm land? 


PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To learn the methods of handling soils. 

Procedure: As a home project, try plowing a small plot in the 
fall and compare it with that plowed in the spring. 

Observe a crop of rye shown in the fall and plowed under in the 
spring. A crop of peas may , also serve as a green manure crop. 


IMPROVING FARM LAND 


167 


Exercise 2 

Secure samples of fertilizers from fertilizer companies and study 
them in the school room. Try applying some commercial fer¬ 
tilizer to the flowers in pots. 

Try mulching tomato plants with straw, leaving another group 
without mulching. Find out which produces the most tomatoes. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Commercial. Fertilizer prepared and sold on the market. 
Friable. Easily crumbled or pulverized. 

Incorporate. To be mixed or blended. 

Menace. Threatens the loss of soil fertility. 

Refuse. Waste matter or rubbish. 

REFERENCES 

“A Fertile Soil Means a Prosperous People,” International Har¬ 
vester Company, Bulletin. 

“Armour’s Farmers’ Almanac,” Armour and Company, Chicago, 

1921. 

“Soils, Their Properties and Management,” Lyon Fippin, Buck- 
man, Macmillan. 

“The Principles of the Liming of Soils,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui. 921. 

“A Simple Way to Increase Crop Yields,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui. 924. 


CHAPTER XIII 
SEED GERMINATION 

What a Seed Contains.-— Those plants which we grow 
so abundantly for our major crops are nearly all pro¬ 
duced from seeds. Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, and clover 
are seed bearing plants. Seeds are really the beginnings 
of new plants. Examine a grain of corn and you will find 
that it has a heart made up of a small germ or embryo, 
surrounded by a large amount of food. This nourishment 
is in the form of starches, proteins, and fats, which serve 
as food for the young seedling. 

Dormant Seeds. —As long as the seed remains hard 
and dry, it will not grow. The little germ is in a dormant 
condition, awaiting favorable conditions of heat and 
moisture. Is this not a wise provision of Nature? If 
seeds of cotton and corn did not remain dormant during 
winter, there would not be enough seeds to plant during 
the coming season, also, the human race would not have 
the supply of flour, meal, and starches necessary for the 
maintenance of life. Thus, seeds not only reproduce the 
plant but produce food for men and animals. 

Good Seed Necessary.— Our object in planting a 
crop should be to secure the greatest returns for the labor 
and capital invested. Nothing insures a wider margin 
of profit than good seed. It is no more expensive to culti¬ 
vate a crop of high yielding corn or cotton than the low 
yielding varieties. Why not get forty bushels of corn 
per acre instead of thirty, if we can do it with very little 

168 



SEED GERMINATION 169 

more effort? The difference in the quality of seed will 
often make a difference in yield. 

Testing Increases Yields.—Some interesting experi¬ 
ments have shown that one ear of seed corn will yield 
three bushels or more of corn. If one ear of corn planted 
upon each acre is dead, it is easy to figure how the yield 
may be decreased almost one-tenth. Not only should the 
question of seed germination be considered, but also 


Fig. 123.—Good and poor seed corn. 

weakness caused by insects and diseases. Much of our 
corn is infected with a moth whose larvae bore into the 
grain, robbing it of its stored food. These moths and 
weevils'might have been killed with carbon disulphide 
when the seed was stored during the fall. The germina¬ 
tion test made in the spring should eliminate any seeds 
which show injury from insects. 

Testing Eliminates Diseases.—Another great factor 
in the study of seed germination is the discovery of 
molds or rots in the young plant. These diseases are 






170 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


caused by parasitic growths or plant molds, known as 
fungi. Their threads and cells are too small to be ob¬ 
served by the eye and must be highly magnified for 
observation. It is known that various kinds of fungi 
may live in cotton or corn plants for several weeks with¬ 
out entirely killing the stalks. Cotton wilt is caused by 
an infection of the plant. The smut balls on the corn 
stalk are really the spore stage of a fungus which began 
to grow in the plant during its germination. It is im¬ 
possible to make a germination test to determine which 



Fig. 124 .—Increasing yields with good seeds. 

stalks of corn will be diseased, but we can make tests to 
eliminate the ears which are weak and show signs of 
being diseased. 

Methods of Testing.—The seed germinator box, rag- 
doll, blotting paper, and box methods of testing seeds are 
used. All of these methods are valuable for detecting 
weak seedlings. 

The Rag Doll—Perhaps the greatest advancement 
in seed testing has been made with corn. This is prob¬ 
ably due to the fact that the ear of corn is convenient to 
handle as a unit. In ea;ch case the ears should be num- 




SEED GERMINATION 


171 


bered by pinning numbered tags to the butts or by plac¬ 
ing them in racks as shown in the diagram. (Fig. 126.) 

Each doll is made to test twenty ears at one time. A 
heavy wrapping paper, preferably glazed, is cut about 



Fig. 125.—The smut ball is all that this stalk of corn has produced during 
the year. 

fourteen by fifty-four inches. This is placed upon a 
table, and a piece of muslin, twelve by twenty-four 
inches, is prepared to cover it. However, the cloth should 
be dipped in boiling water for a few minutes to remove 
any matter that might be injurious to the seedlings. 



172 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


While this cloth is still wet, eight kernels should be taken 
from each ear, beginning at the butt and revolving the 
ear to remove a kernel from every third row. These 
grains should be placed in a row across the cloth with 
the tips pointing in one direction as indicated in the 
diagram. (Fig. 127.) Each row should be numbered 
with colored chalk or with a wax pencil. The doll should 



Fig. 126 —Seed ears numbered for testing. Notice that they are strung and 
placed so that rats and mice will not disturb them. 


be rolled very carefully to avoid displacing the kernels 
and to see that the heavy wrapping paper insulates each 
row. In using the glazed paper and cloth, the roots of 
seedling from one ear of corn will not become entangled 
with those of another. After rolling, the doll should be 
tied loosely in three places or bound with rubber bands, 
and then dipped in water to saturate the cloth. A num¬ 
ber of dolls may be placed in an incubator, as shown in 





SEED GERMINATION 


173 


the diagram. (Fig. 128.) This incubator is merely two 
boxes lined with wet sawdust and covered with wet burlap 
to hold the moisture. A temperature of eighty degrees F. 
should be maintained by placing the box near a stove or 
furnace. 

The corn should be allowed to remain in the tester for 
six or eight days if the temperature is low. After unroll¬ 
ing the doll, the rows of seedlings may be checked with 



Fig. 127.—Grain placed in a rag doll. The rows in the doll correspond to the 
number of the ear from which the grains are taken. 

the corresponding ears of corn. Those ears showing weak 
germination, or dead kernels should be discarded. 

Cotton.—A similar test may be made for seed cotton, 
with the exception that a check cannot be made of the 
plant unit from which the seed came. Weak seeds may 
be discarded by this method. Cloth used in making the 
test may be used again if boiled to destroy molds. If 
the rag doll is properly used it is perhaps the most effec¬ 
tive method of detecting weak or diseased seed. 

Wheat, Oats, and Clovers.—Seed of these crops may 










174 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


be easily tested by the blotting paper method as shown 
in the diagram (Fig. 130). One hundred grains should 



Fig. 128 .—A germinator box showing how the moist sack or sawdust is 
placed in the bottom to hold moisture. The top is covered after the dolls 
have been placed. 


be counted out for each square. Sufficient moisture and 
temperature are necessary to secure satisfactory results 
in any germination test. 













SEED GERMINATION 


175 


Sand-Box or Sawdust Box Testers.—By drawing 
cords across a box of sand, as indicated in the diagram 
(Fig. 131), squares may be marked off and numbered, 
six or eight seed may then be taken from each ear of 
corn and planted in the square corresponding to the num¬ 
ber on the ear. While the sand-box does not permit the 



Fig. 129.—Checking a rag doll tester. The knife points to decayed grains. 
Ear number 2 should be discarded. 


observation on the root system, it provides more natural 
conditions for the growth of the seedling. The number 
of seeds germinating may be counted, and the rate of 
growth observed. Those seeds which appear above the 
ground first usually produce the best plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name four conditions necessary for seed germination. 

2. What is meant by dormant and active stages of a seed? 

3. Why are good seeds so important? 




176 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


4. How does the kind of seeds determine the kind of crop we 
will grow? 

5. How much corn may be produced by one good ear of seed? 

6. Tell how to destroy weevils and moths in seed. 

7. What are fungi? 

8. Tell how to prevent fungous growth in plants. 

9. Explain three simple methods of testing seeds. 



Fig. 130.—A blotting paper tester. 


10. Of what advantage is seed testing in practical farming? 

11. Is it best to buy seed corn on the ear or shelled? 

12. What methods of seed testing would you use for testing 
seed cotton, wheat, oats, and clover? 

13. What are the objections to planting old seed? 

14. How do you estimate the percentage of seeds that ger¬ 
minate? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To test the germination of seed corn. 

Materials: Seed corn stored during the previous fall. Strips 
of muslin one foot wide and fifty-four inches long. Heavy paper 



SEED GERMINATION 


177 


of the same dimensions. Strings and rubber bands and tags. A 
box twelve inches by twelve inches square and twelve or fifteen 
inches deep. Sawdust or moss to retain the moisture in the box. 
A knife and pencil. 

Procedure: Lay out twenty ears of corn upon a table or shelf. 
Number each ear with a paper tag. 

Wet the muslin in boiling water and stretch it evenly over the 
heavy paper. Number twenty spaces upon the cloth as shown in 

Figure 127. 

Draw eight kernels from each ear and place in rows as indicated 
in Figure 127. Care should be taken that the ear and the number 
of the row correspond. 



Fig. 131.—Sand or sawdust box tester A. Removable top with numbers. 
B. Box containing sawdust. 


After eight grains have been drawn from each of the twenty 
ears and placed in the proper rows, the doll is rolled carefully to 
avoid displacing the corn. Bands or strings placed around the 
dolls as indicated in Figure 128. The dolls are placed vertically 
in the box, packed with sawdust, moistened and covered. Sev¬ 
eral dolls should be prepared at one time. 

A temperature of eighty degrees F. is maintained for six days. 
By this time the corn should have made a vigorous growth. 

In reading the doll, remove the bands, and unroll as it had been 
rolled when starting the test. Dead and decaying grains can be 
easily detected, as shown in Figure 129. Discard those ears show¬ 
ing dead or badly molded grains. 











178 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Burlap. A coarse fabric, made of jute or hemp and used for 
bagging. 

Detecting. To find out, discover, or lay bare. 

Discard. To reject or cast off as useless. 

Dormant. Resting or not active. 

Embryo. A germ or undeveloped stage of a seed. 

Fungi. A low form of plant life that lives on other plants. 
Larvae. The worm stage of insects; as caterpillar. 

Maintenance. That which supports life. 

Major. Most important. 

Parasite. A plant or animal living upon another living organ¬ 
ism at whose expense it obtains its food. 

Preferably. Something to be selected first. 

Spore. A dustlike reproduction cell of fungi. 

REFERENCES 

‘The Rag-Doll Seed Tester,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 
948. 

“Better Seed Corn,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 1175. 
“Testing Farm Seed in Home and Rural Schools,” U. S. Dept, 
of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 428. 


CHAPTER XIV 


VEGETABLE GARDENING 

Every Home Needs a Garden. —By raising a garden 
at home, the cost of living is lowered, and the family 
will also have food which it would otherwise do without. 
Fresh wholesome vegetables should be .a part of the diet 
of everyone, and if these vegetables are grown at home, 
much worry and time are saved in planning and pre¬ 
paring meals. The home garden will offer opportunity 
for the boys and girls to do work that is a credit to 
themselves and their country. Very often an indus¬ 
trious child will produce enough vegetables for the family 
and have a surplus to sell, which will aid him in getting 
an education. Gardening offers physical exercise and 
out-of-door recreation, as well as pleasure and profit. 
While working with plants, one learns many things 
about them which develops interest in growing plants. 
By turning small undesirable waste places into gardens 
which will yield food and add beauty to our surround¬ 
ings, we become useful citizens. Also a gardener will 
get joy, contentment, and happiness from raising vege¬ 
tables. 

Location and Site. —The garden should be located 
near the house so it will be convenient for the housewife 
to gather vegetables. The housewife finds it incon¬ 
venient to depend on the busy farmer to bring vege¬ 
tables to the house at the proper time. The best site 
for the home garden is a southern slope with good nat- 
179 


180 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


ural drainage. This kind of slope is desirable because 
it warms up early in the spring, enabling one to get the 
seeds and plants into the open ground very early. In 
selecting a site for a home garden, it is also well to con¬ 
sider protection from the north and west winds. Such 
objects as fences, houses, hedges, and trees prove to be 
useful barriers. 



Fig. 132.—A garden for profit and pleasure. 


Size of the Garden.—The size of the vegetable garden 
may vary from a few square feet on a city lot to several 
acres in the rural districts. The size of the area from 
which to choose will also depend on the number in the 
family, the price of the land, the kind of crops to be 
grown, and the use of the crops. Usually it is better 
to have a small, well-kept garden than a large one that 
is poorly worked. The small garden may be cared for 
by hand implements, while the large garden should be 




VEGETABLE GARDENING 


181 



tilled with horse drawn implements. If properly planned 
and cultivated, a small garden on a town lot will pro¬ 
duce all the vegetables that a family can use. 

Fertilizing the Garden.—The best way to fertilize 
the garden is by scattering a coat of barnyard manure 
over the surface at the rate of eight to ten tons an 
acre. Scatter in the fall and plow it under. Especially 
is this treatment used when applying fresh barnyard 
manure. A winter cover crop may be planted on the 
land after other crops are harvested and turned under 
as green manure. 


Fig. 133.—Cowpeas as a cover crop. 

Preparing the Seed Bed.—In the spring when 
preparation of the seed bed is begun, the land should 
be well broken. Then the next thing to do is to plow 
the soil deep or spade it well, using a spade or garden 
fork. If the land is cloddy after breaking, the clods 
should be crushed with a roller or plank drag, after 
which it should be harrowed several times with a section 
or A-harrow. This will put the seed bed in fine shape 
to receive the seed or plants. 

Selecting Varieties.—In selecting varieties of plants 
for the home garden, the likes and dislikes of the entire 



182 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


family should be considered. It would be of little use 
to plant several rows of corn in the garden, if only one 
member of the family ate corn. On the other hand, 
if all the members of the family like strawberries, the 
area devoted to this crop should be much larger. In 
choosing vegetables for the garden, time and attention 
should be given to the selection of varieties that mature 
at different times and yield abundantly. Every garden 



Fig. 134.—A hotbed. During the winter, glass covers are placed over the beds 
as shown in the center of the picture. 


should contain early, medium, and late varieties of 
vegetables. The slogan of good gardening should be, 
“have something for the table every day in the year.” 
Varieties of vegetables should also be selected with refer¬ 
ence to harmful insect pests and diseases. For example, 
if the tomato plants in your garden are destroyed by 
wilt one year, you should select wilt resistant varieties 
the next year. 

Source of Seeds and Plants.—The seeds and plants 
may be grown at home with very little trouble and 




VEGETABLE GARDENING 


183 



small expense. If you are going to buy seed out of 
town, it is well that you write for seed catalogues early, 
make up your lists, and order them early in January. 
This will enable the shipment to reach you in time for 
testing and planting. Such seeds as squash, mustard, 
radish, okra, peas, and beans, may be saved from the 
home garden. Collect these seeds when they are dry, 


Fig. 135—A well arranged garden. 

cure them thoroughly in the sun, and store them in a 
well ventilated place, which is protected from insects 
and mice. 

Hotbeds—A small hotbed for home use may be made 
by taking two I"xl2"x6', one I"xl2"xl2', one I"x6"x6', 
one I"x6"xl2', and one 2"x4"xl2'. Cut the brace mate¬ 
rial so the back of the frame will be eighteen inches high 
and the front twelve inches high. Prepare the frame and 
brace it well. In nailing the plank on the brace mate- 






184 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


rial, let the small plank be on the bottom. This will 
enable you to bank dirt around the frame so as to 
prevent cold air from entering the bed. Next, dig the 
pit about two feet deep and one foot larger than the 
frame. Fill the pit eighteen inches deep with horse 
manure to which a little hay has been added. Moisten 
and pack the manure firmly as it is put into the bed. 
Cover the manure with six inches of rich garden loam, 



Fig. lift—Companion crops. The corn has just been harvested, and the 
cowpeas cover the ground. 


place on the frame and mound the dirt up well around 
the sides. The bed may be covered with standard size 
hotbed sash or heavy drilling. Allow the bed to heat 
for several days, and when the temperature remains 
from 84° to 98° Fahrenheit, the seed may be planted. 
It is always desirable to locate the hotbed in a well 
protected place, with the highest side to the north. 

Cold Frame.—Cold frames are constructed similar 
to hotbeds. In the hotbed, we have a pit filled with 
manure, while in cold frames we do not need the pit or 




VEGETABLE GARDENING 185 

manure for heating it. The frame used for the hotbed 
is the same as the frame used for the cold frame. 

Plants raised in the hotbeds may be transplanted into 
the cold frame and hardened off before setting them 
into the field. Tender plants started in the hotbed or 
cold frame should not be set in the open until after the 
danger of frost is over. 

Use System in Planting.—It is advisable to mark 
out the rows in the garden before planting. A well 
arranged garden with straight rows, is admired by every 
one. Also attention should be given to the grouping of 
plants. The berries and perennials should be planted in 
one section of the garden, and the tall growing varieties 
should not be planted with the smaller varieties. Plants 
that mature about the same time should be planted near 
each other; this will permit breaking the ground together 
and save expense of tillage. 

Planting Seed.—Seed may be planted by drilling or 
broadcasting. The drill system is the best for the home 
garden because the crops are more easily worked. In 
planting seed, care should be taken that they are not 
planted too deep or too thick. Small seeds are usually 
sown thickly and about one-fourth to one-half inch 
deep while the larger seeds are planted in hills or at 
short spaces from two to four inches deep. After the 
plantlets come up, if they are too thick, the crop should 
be thinned to the proper stand. This enables one to 
raise strong, sturdy, thrifty plants. 

Transplanting.—Frost-tender plants should not be 
transplanted to the open ground until all danger of 
frost is over. Usually this is about the middle of April 
in Southern states. The best time of day for trans¬ 
planting plants into the open field is late in the evening. 
If the plants are set out at this time and are well 


186 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


watered, they will wilt very little. When possible, one 
may select cloudy days to carry on this work. 

Succession Crops. —By succession cropping, we mean 
the planting of such crops as corn, turnips, lettuce, peas, 
and beans, every few weeks to come on and take the 
place of the older crops as they mature. This distributes 
the food supply over a period of time rather than giving 
us an over supply at ope time without fresh vegetables 
to eat at other periods. 

Companion Crops. —Companion cropping is the plant¬ 
ing together of crops of different varieties. For example, 
field peas planted in corn, or pumpkins in corn, and 
corn or peanuts in the middle of Irish potato rows. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give six reasons why every home needs a garden 

2. Discuss the best location and site for the garden. 

3. Name several successful gardeners in your community. Tell 
why they are successful. 

4. Observe and describe a good seed bed. 

5. Why should the gardener study the selection of varieties 
of crops? 

6. Give six rules that would govern the planting of seeds and 
transplanting plants. 

7. Tell how to fertilize the home garden. 

8. W T hat is succession and companion cropping? 

9. Why do we cultivate the garden? 

10. Why should every farmer eat more vegetables? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To prepare a hotbed and raise plants for school gar¬ 
den and your home garden. 

Material: Lumber, nails, saw, hammer, spade, shovels, canvas 
or glass sash, and horse manure. 

Procedure: After selecting a place for the hotbed, dig a pit 
from 2 to 3 feet deep. The pit should be made 2 feet longer and 


VEGETABLE GARDENING 


187 


2 feet wider than the frame. Fill the pit to a depth of 18 inches 
with fresh horse manure, moisten it and pack it firmly. Finish 
filling the pit with rich garden loam. Prepare the frame as 
described in the text and place it over the pit. Mound up 
around the sides with earth. Cover the bed with glass sash or 
canvas. After the bed has begun to maintain a temperature of 
70° to 80° Fahrenheit, the seed may be planted in shallow drills 
about 6 inches apart. Water the bed and ventilate it, in order 
that the seedlings produce sturdy plants. 

Results: Plants produced in the hotbed may be sold to gar¬ 
deners in the community, planted in the school garden, or trans¬ 
planted to the home garden. 

Exercise 2 

Visit a hardware store and study some of our most important 
garden tools. 

Exercise 3 

Write to seed houses for copies of their catalogues. Get your 
parents to order their seed early and test them to see if they 
will germinate. 


WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

A-Harrow. An A-shaped farm implement having teeth used 
to pulverize soil. 

Barriers. A natural or artificial boundary line. 

Catalogue. A long list of names or things arranged in alpha¬ 
betical order. 

Drilling. A firm twilled cloth of linen or cotton. 

Fahrenheit. A mercurial thermometer showing in degrees the 
various temperatures. 

Hotbed. A bed of earth artificially warmed and protected by 
glass frames or of heavy cloth. 

Miniature.' The natural thing reproduced on a small scale. 

Perennial. A plant lasting more than two years, as a tree. 

Resistant. Tending to produce resistance, going against or 
producing opposition. 

Site. Local position. 

Slogan. A word or sentence cry. 


188 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


REFERENCES 

The following bulletins may be secured from the United States 
Department of Agriculture: 

“The Home Vegetable Garden,” Bui. 255. 

“Home Gardening in the South,” Bui. 934. 

“Tomato Growing in the South,” Bui. 642. „ 

“Producing Family and Farm Supplies on the Cotton Farm, 
Bui. 1015. 

“The School Garden,” Bui. 218. 

“Hotbeds and Cold Frames,” Oklahoma A. & M. College, Circ. 
113. 

“Vegetable Gardening,” Green, Webb Publishing Company. 


CHAPTER XV 


FLOWERS 

Beauty and Success.—Do you have a feeling upon 
returning home from a journey that your home is just 
a little more home-like, a little more desirable than any 
other place you have seen? Do the flowers have a 
brighter hue in your garden? Is there a feeling that 
home is about the best place on earth? If you do not, 
there must be something wrong. 

Is your school a building with four walls, or is it an 
institution in which you take pride? Is it alive with 
those little things which add joy to your surroundings? 

People through all the ages have taken great pride in 
growing flowers. Their arrangement in gardens involves 
a great art. The beautifying of the home indicates 
fundamentals of success, pride, energy and ambition. 
Let us consider the uses of flowers as a means of making 
our homes and schools more artistic. (Figure 137.) 

A Border for the Picture.—The size of the build¬ 
ings and the grounds, along with the general type of 
architecture, will determine the kinds of flowers to be 
planted. A small cottage does not require a large gar¬ 
den or park with an endless variety of plants. The 
flowers should serve as a border, as a background for 
the picture. The same rule should apply to the school. 
(Figure 137.) What should be the aims to consider in 
planting flowers? Most of us are busy with various 
kinds of work and do not have much time to devote to 


189 


190 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the care of flowers. Therefore, we should try to plant 
flowers which will produce beautiful blossoms without 
much attention. We like to have flowers blooming all 
the time. Our varieties should include early flowering 
types as well as continuous bloomers. 

Annuals.—Many of our plants live only during one 
season. They grow from seed, bloom, produce more 
seed and die with the coming winter or during the dry 
season. These are known as annuals. The petunia, 



Fig. 137.—A successful appearance. 


scarlet sage, nasturtium, cosmos, zinnia, larkspur, sweet 
pea, sunflower, morning-glory and verbena are the most 
common annual flowers. The seed is usually planted 
in germinating boxes, early in the spring. Small seeds, 
such as the petunia and scarlet sage, should not be 
covered deeply with soil. (Figure 139.) A wet cloth 
will serve as a covering until they have germinated. 
Sweet pea seeds may be planted in the trenches at any 
time when the soil may be worked during the winter. 
They are more satisfactory if they are ready to bloom 
during the cool months of spring. Morning-glory seeds 




FLOWERS 


191 


may be planted where the vines are desired. They pro¬ 
vide excellent covering for unsightly buildings and 
fences. Nothing is more attractive than a border of 
nasturtiums in a window box. Zinnias, larkspur; golden 
rod and double sunflowers provide a brilliant mixture of 
color for a garden during the hot season. (Figure 140.) 

Perennials.—Our most attractive flowers are produced 
by those plants which remain alive for several years, 
not depending entirely upon the planting of seeds each 



Fig. 138.—A school ground. 


year. These plants are called perennials. Violets, roses, 
hydrangeas, honeysuckle, daisies, asters, perennial phlox, 
pinks, lilac, wistaria, oleander, spirea, Japanese quince, 
syringa, pansies and ferns may be grown under proper 
conditions of soil, light, and moisture. 

What is more beautiful than a rose garden? Cuttings 
from our most beautiful varieties may be started in wet 
sand in the school room during the winter. These may 
be transplanted in March to borders about buildings 
and walks. Violets and pansies grow with very little 






192 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


care, blooming when other flowers do not. They form 
a border for the beds of other flowers. A rose bed may 
be filled in with petunias, phlox, daisies or asters, to 
furnish a variety of flowers. (Figure 141.) 



Fig. 139.— The germination of seeds. Small seeds are planted upon the 
surface and covered with a wet cloth. They soon germinate. The seedlings 
may be transplanted as soon as they are well started. 

Shrubs supply a background for our picture. The 
space behind a building may be transformed into a 
beautiful setting by planting shrubs which flower at 
different times. Spirea and syringa are low shrubs which 
produce an abundance of flowers very early in the 



FLOWERS 


193 


spring. These are followed by lilacs and snowballs, 
taller bushes which should be placed farther back. The 
hydrangea blooms still later, and one or two may add 



Fig. 140.—A flower garden in the back yard provides a wide variety of color. 


much to any garden. Oleanders will not survive freez¬ 
ing weather, but they are very desirable for summer 



Fig. 141.—Petunias follow the rose. The mass of flowers lasts until winter. 


blooming. Nothing is more attractive than a trellis 
or arbor covered with ^wistaria or honeysuckle. They 
vine over a support and produce a very inviting shade. 








194 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Wild Flowers.—While we are discussing cultivated 
flowers, why not notice our native wild flowers? Our 
woods and fields supply an abundance of rare beauties. 
Beginning in the early spring, we find a great many 
wild violets. These are followed by verbenas. Butter¬ 
cups, daisies, and snapdragons may be found in moist 
fields. These are followed by several varieties of even¬ 
ing primrose. They are white, pink or yellow. Wild 



Fig. 142.—An effective background, in which unsightly fences are covered with 
ornamental hedges. 


larkspur, daisies and poppies are found in many com¬ 
munities. The Texas Blue bonnet is attractive. Golden- 
rod provide blossoms for the latter part of the season. 
If we cannot obtain cultivated flowers in sufficient quan¬ 
tities, let us try a flower bed of wild flowers. They are 
easily found and transplanted. (Figure 143.) 

Bulbs.—The most interesting type of flowers is un¬ 
doubtedly the bulb. Most of these plants are members 
of the lily family, and they do not depend upon the 
seed for raising new plants. The bulbs, which are 







FLOWERS 


195 



enlarged stems, divide and the new bulbs are used for 
planting the next season. Most of our bulbs do not 
develop well unless they have the advantage of a cold 
winter. It appears that the flowers do not form so 
abundantly unless they pass through this long resting 
period. For this reason, the bulb plants have never 
been grown to any great extent in gardens. Also, most 
of our bulb plants are naturally water plants requiring 


Fig. 143.—Wildflowers provide an unusual opportunity to improve the variety 
of plantings. 

an abundance of moisture. The narcissus is perhaps 
the most popular and attractive flower grown from 
bulbs. These blossom early in the spring when there 
are few showy flowers. The hyacinth may also produce 
some delightful colors. If there is an abundance of 
moisture, the iris is most attractive. Almost all of these 
bulbs should be planted during the month of November, 
to insure blossoming the next spring. The canna is a 
summer flowering bulb, hardy and easily transplanted. 
A few stalks will furnish a supply of brilliant reds and 



196 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


yellows for a large portion of the season. The caladium 
(elephant ear) does not bloom, but the enormous leaves 
cover a multitude of bare places and is very attractive 
when properly placed in a flower bed. (Figure 144.) 
A few tuberous rooted plants produce splendid flowers. 
Where conditions are right, the dahlia is easily grown 



Fig. 144—A variety of plants in the flower bed. Note the large elephant’s 
ears in the canna lining. 


and flowers during the latter part of the season when 
other plants are taking a vacation. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Of what value are flowers about the home? 

2. What determines the kinds of flowers one should grow? 

3. Prepare a list of annual flowering plants. 

4. What are perennial flowers? Name several kinds. 

5. Observe flowers and make reports as to which stand hot, 
dry weather conditions best. 

6. When is the best time to prepare soil for flowers? 









FLOWERS 


197 


7. Describe two ways of raising flower seedlings to be trans¬ 
planted to beds. 

8. Name three vines used for shading porches and buildings. 

9. At what time of the year should shrubs be planted? 

10. Tell how to grow roses from cuttings. 

11. Prepare a list of wild flowers grown in your district. 

12. When should bulbs be planted? 

13. Discuss the kinds of soil best for bulbs. 

14. Give five hints to be considered in bulb growing. 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To beautify the school ground. 

Procedure: Look about your school and see where some im¬ 
provement may be made in the general landscape appearance. 
Do you find that the corners are filled with dead weeds from 
last year? Could a trellis be built near the exposed side of the 
building so that it would not look so bare? Are there shaded 
corners where ferns would grow? Would not the corners of the 
grounds be more attractive with some shrubs? 

Would it be possible to collect the seeds and roots of our pret¬ 
tiest wild flowers and make a border about the school grounds? 

The main part of the lawn or playground should not be clut¬ 
tered with flower beds, but the flowers should be the finishing 
border framework for the picture. Each member of the class 
can bring a cutting from a rose bush for starting in wet sand, 
later to be transplanted to the corner where the weeds grew so 
rank last year. A little work by each pupil will do much to 
beautify the grounds. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Architecture. The science and art of designing and construct¬ 
ing, usually buildings. 

Arbor. A latticework formed of or covered with vines, 
branches of trees, etc. 

Borders: Margin or edge. 

Bulb. A leaf bud usually developed underground. 

Institution. That which is established, as a permanent school. 


198 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Trellis. A cross-barred lattice. A support for climbing plants 
to run. on. 

Tuberous. Tuber-like parts. 

REFERENCE 

“School and Home Gardens,” Meier; Ginn and Co., 1913. 

“Ladies’ Home Journal,” Current Issues, Curtis Pub. Co. 

“Garden Magazine,” Current Issues. 


CHAPTER XVI 


BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 

Do you like to see a comfortable home nesting among 
beautiful trees, shrubs, and flowers? Does a well kept 
lawn with showy flowers, climbing vines, and shrubs 
carefully arranged to cut off undesirable views, enable 
you to judge the lives of the people who live in these 
homes?. Do those sturdy shade and fruit trees that are 
dotted here and there bearing luscious fruit contribute 
anything to make the lives of boys and girls better? 
What lad does not enjoy playing on the lawn covered 
with Nature’s carpet green, and sitting with playmates 
at story telling time or eating the heart of a good water¬ 
melon while he smells the odors of new mown hay and 
sniffs the breezes perfumed with the fragrance of petu¬ 
nias, geraniums, and cape jasmines? 

One does not have to be a landscape gardener in order 
to make the home grounds attractive. The boy or girl, 
man or woman who likes to work with plants and watch 
them grow will learn through study and practical experi¬ 
ence the best methods of arranging and growing plants 
for pleasure and profit. 

Beautiful Lawns.—The size of the lawn or home 
yard will be governed by the price of the land, location, 
kind of home, desires of the family, money required to 
make and keep the plantings, and the kind of labor 
available. 

Usually in cities where land values are high and houses 
199 


200 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

are built on small lots, the lawn is very small, while in 
suburban or country districts the area is somewhat larger. 




Fig. 145.—A well landscaped home, below. 

The same home before landscaping, above. 


Regardless of the size, the lawn should slope gently so 
that the water will drain away from the house. A 
southern and eastern slope is preferable because the 






BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 201 


plants will be protected from the cold winds of the West 
and North. 

After grading and filling the lawn so as to give the 
desired effect, the surface should be covered from two to 
three inches deep with well rotted manure. If the soil is 
poor it is best to fill the yard with eight or ten inches of 
rich sandy loam. Then apply a top dressing of humus 
and mix it with the soil. 



Fig. 146.—A lawn with proper slope. 


Having prepared the soil for a good lawn you will 
naturally think of planting the grass and laying out the 
flower beds, but the best plan is to delay this work until 
the garden, poultry yards, and cow lot have been fenced. 

The walks should be constructed and the flower beds 
laid out before sowing flower seed or setting out plants. 
Very often in cities or small towns valuable trees have 
to be moved or destroyed to make way for a sidewalk 
with the proper grade. 

The Best Grass for Southern Lawns Is Bermuda.— 

One may get a start with this grass by sowing the seed 





202 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




or by laying off shallow furrows about eighteen inches 
apart, dropping pieces of sod and covering them with 


Fig. 147.—Bermuda lawn at mowing time. 

loose soil. The latter method of establishing a green 
carpet on the lawn is more satisfactory. 


Fig. 148.—Plants used as screens. 

As soon as the grass makes its appearance, the weeds 
should be kept down. Mow the lawn when it is needed 
and leave the old clippings on the ground to add humus 






BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 203 

to the soil. In mowing young or old grass, it is not ad¬ 
visable to clip it very short because the plants need some 
leaf surface in order to make their food. If the weather 
is dry the lawn should be watered, and the best time for 
watering plants is late in the evening. This prevents 
scalding. 

Screen Undesirable Views.—We have many methods 
of cutting off undesirable views of the backyard. On 
city lots a good plan is to build a solid board fence about 



Fig. 149. — Vining roses over a fence. 


five feet high between the front and backyard. Such 
plants as lilacs, altheas, Amoor River privet, bridal 
wreath, and spirea may be planted in front of the fence 
to cut off the view. Another practical method is to plant 
yellow or red varieties of cannas in front of the fence. 
Shasta daises may be planted in front of the cannas, and 
the bed bordered with vinca or violets. Castor beans 
may also be used to screen the barnyard fence. Some 
residents prefer to build ornamental fences between the 
front and backyard and cover them with running roses 
or grapes. 





204 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Rose Gardens.—The best location for the rose garden 
is in the backyard or off to one side of the house. The 
plants should be planted in bed formation in checks from 
three to four feet apart. The best time for transplanting 
roses is in the fall or during the months of February and 
March. For quick results one may set two year old 
plants. But plants may be grown from cuttings or small 
nursery stock. In order to obtain beautiful roses for cut 
flowers it is necessary that the bushes be pruned, sprayed, 
and given thorough and timely cultivation. 



Fig. 150.—A rose garden. 


House Border Plants.—Such plants as Amoor River 
privet, bridal wreath, altheas, Cape Jasmines, Euyona- 
mus Japonica, and Shasta daisies do well and make a 
good showing when they are properly massed near a 
building. In making such a planting avoid straight lines. 
Massed beds of petunias or solid beds of zinnias are easy 
to grow and make a beautiful display as border flowers. 

Flower Beds for School Grounds.—In planning a 
round bed for the school grounds, the following arrange- 




BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 205 


ment is very effective. Lay out the bed from 14 to 16 
feet in diameter and prepare the soil thoroughly. Mass 



Fig. 151. — An attractive border planting. 


red cannas in the center about 12 inches apart. Plant a 
row of zinnias around the cannas, and border with Shasta 



Fig. 152.—A round flower bed. 


daisies. Small round beds of scarlet sage or salvia, or a 
massed bed of vinca is very beautiful. 





206 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Oblong Flower Beds.—The oblong flower bed may 
be 12 feet in diameter and 30 feet long. Prepare the 
soil as for other flower beds and plant five rows of red 
or yellow cannas, in the center, set a row of caladiums 
in front of the cannas, one row of salvia in front of the 
caladiums, and border the bed with vinca, coleus or 
alternanthera. 

Ribbon Beds for Drives.—One of the most effective 
plantings along drives is as follows: California privet 



Fig. 153.—Oblong flower beds. 


hedge that is well pruned as the background, yellow 
cannas in front of the hedge, roses in front of the cannas, 
with border plants of violets or verbenas. This arrange¬ 
ment of plants is permanent. 

Plants for Marking Property Lines.—California 
privet and Amoor River privet are used extensively for 
marking property lines. The plants are set in rows from 
12 to 18 inches apart and should be kept well trimmed 
at all times. For giving that green living effect to lawns 
in the dead of winter a few evergreens such as: cedars, 
boxwood, Euyonamus Japonicas, California privet, and 
Amoor River privet may be planted. They may be 




BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 207 


planted singly, in clusters of two, three, or five plants at 
a place where they will be most attractive. 

Shade Trees.—We have two systems of planting 
shade trees known as the formal and informal. Planting 
along walks and drives in straight rows is known as 
formal planting. Informal planting is planting trees to 
give the natural effect. The nearer the planter imitates 
Nature, the better the result will be. 



Fig. 154.—An attractive ribbon bed. 

Cannas and roses arranged in rows in front of the hedge. 


Time to Plant Trees.—The best time to set out shade 
trees is during their dormant period. The months of 
November, February, and March are probably the best 
months for doing this work. Trees that are planted after 
the buds begin to burst do not get well established and 
will likely die during the warm summer months. 

Size of Trees to Plant.—The proper size tree to plant 
is one from 2 to 4 inches in diameter. It should be 
healthy, well balanced, and free from bruises. In setting 
shade trees one may follow the suggestions given for 
planting fruit trees. 



208 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Varieties of Shade Trees—Some of our most famil¬ 
iar shade trees in the South are the oak, maple, locust, 
catalpas, magnolia, pecan, walnut, hackberry, cotton¬ 
wood, sycamore, and elm. If the lawn or school ground 
contains natural growth of pine, hickory or oak, it should 
not be destroyed to make places for other trees. The 
native trees always do best because they are adapted to 
the soil and climate. 



Fig. 155.—A neat hedge marks the property line and does not detract from 
. the beauty of the landscape. 


Care of Grounds.—The home and school grounds 
should be kept clean and tidy at all times. Collect and 
dispose of paper, cans, old pieces of wood, rocks, dead 
plants, and general rubbish. 

After each mowing the grass should be edged around 
the beds so as to do away with the ragged appearance. 
The trimmings should be raked up and hauled away and 
walks brushed off with a. broom. Beds should be kept 




BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 209 




Fig. 156. —Formal and informal plantings of shade trees. Above, the ever¬ 
greens are planted as a design for a miniature park. Below, the trees are 
planted at random over a lawn. 





210 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


free from grass and weeds. The shade trees should be 
mulched from time to time and watered during the hot 
dry summer months. 

Growing Plants for Home and School Grounds.— 

Such flowers as marigolds, petunias, phlox, zinnias, ver¬ 
benas, vinca, and salvia are easily grown from seed. A 
few packages of each kind of seed may be sown at the 
school in a well prepared seed bed. Some of the plants 



Fig. 157.—Well kept grounds. 


may be transplanted to the school grounds and others 
set in the home yards by the students. If you will make 
a start this year by securing a few violets, cannas, cala- 
diums, and Shasta daisies and plant them in good soil 
and give them proper care you will have many plants to 
distribute on the home and school grounds of your com¬ 
munity next year. 


QUESTIONS 

1. Give your reasons why trees, shrubs, and flowers should 
be planted on the home grounds. 

2. Name five factors that govern the size of the lawn. 






BEAUTIFUL GROUNDS GLADDEN LIVING 211 


3. Why should the lawn slope gently from the house? 

4. Tell how to prepare a good soil for the lawn. 

5. Why should walks and flower beds be laid out before 
planting the home grounds? 

6. Explain two ways of starting Bermuda grass on the lawn. 

7. What plants make desirable screens to hide undesirable 
views? 

8. Tell how to make a rose garden. 

9. What plants do well when planted around the border of 
the house? 

10. Tell how to make a round, oblong, and ribbon flower bed. 

11. What plants are used in marking property lines? 

12. Name several common shade trees in your district. 

13. When is the best time to set shade trees? Tell how to set 
a shade tree. 

14. When is a lawn or school ground well kept? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To plant trees on the school grounds. 

Material: Shade trees, shovels, spades, tapeline, a wagon, and 
a sharp knife. 

Procedure: Locate the places where the trees are to be set. 
Dig the holes for them, and have some rich garden soil and place 
it near each excavation for use in planting the trees. Secure 
the trees from the woods or nursery. Care should be taken not 
to let their roots dry out. In setting the trees, place them in 
the holes prepared for them and set them a little deeper than 
they stood in their original home. In setting, work the loam 
soil in well around the roots and firm or pack it down. The 
last few inches of soil placed about the tree should be left loose 
to serve as a mulch. In transplanting it is a good plan to water 
the trees. Do not use fresh manure or other rubbish in the 
holes made for the trees. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To plant flowers on the school grounds. 

Materials: Flower seed, garden implements, and a yardstick. 

Procedure: 1. Lay out the beds where the flowers are to be 
planted and prepare them for the seed. 


212 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

2. Plant the flo.wer seed at the proper time and thin out the 
seedlings after they begin growing. 

3. Keep the flowers watered, weeded, and cultivated. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Diameter. The length of the straight line through the center 
of an object. 

Luscious. Pleasing to the taste and smell. 

Ornamental. A plant cultivated essentially for decorative 
purposes. 

Property lines. A division line between personal land property. 
Shrub. A small woody plant with many branches. 

REFERENCES 

“Landscape Gardening,” Bailey, L. H., Macmillan. 


CHAPTER XVII 


CORN GROWING 

Kinds and Varieties.—Just as we have different kinds 
of cattle, we have different kinds of corn. These may 
be crossed and mixed to such an extent that it is difficult 
to say which is a distinct kind of corn and a variety. 
We recognize six kinds of corn; the pod kinds, covered 
with a pod similar to wheat chaff; dent corns, the larger 
kinds of our field corn with a distinct dent in each 
grain; the flint corns, with hard smooth grains; sweet 
corn, with a wrinkled grain and a sweet sugary taste; 
soft corn, for making flour and meal; and pop corns, 
well known for “pop corn and cracker-jack.” 

These various kinds are divided into a great number 
of varieties, more than five hundred. A few of these 
are listed below. 

Dent Corn. 

Reid’s Yellow Dent. 

Boone County White. 

Hickory King. 

Bloody Butcher. 

Ferguson’s Yellow Dent. 

Mixed. 

Iowa Silver Mine. 

Learning. 

Squaw corn. 

Chisholm. 


213 


214 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Flint. 

Longfellow. 

King Philip. 

Triumph Yellow. 

Gehu Yellow Flint. 

Early Yellow Canada. 

Sweet Corn. 

Country Gentleman. 

Golden Bantam. 

StowelPs Evergreen. 

Adam’s Extra Early. 

Mammoth White Cory. 

Early Evergreen. 

Pop Corn. 

White Rice 

Yellow. 

Golden Pop. 

Sure Pop. 

From the above lists, it may be seen that our southern 
farmers may have varieties to meet the conditions of 
every community. In fact, many of these have become 
mixed to such an extent that it is difficult to determine 
which is the best for any particular condition. Just as 
we should keep pure breeds of hogs and cattle, we should 
also raise pure varieties of corn. It is more profitable 
to plant seed from a well-bred strain than from a dozen 
varieties in the same field. Your county agricultural 
demonstrator or agricultural college will furnish infor¬ 
mation that will help to solve the local problem. 

Planting Dates, Moisture and Soil Conditions.— 
The time of planting corn depends upon the temperature 
and moisture. We may plant from the time of the last 


CORN GROWING 


215 


killing frost until June. Some of our common methods 
of determining when to plant corn are when the leaves 
upon the white oak are as large as the ears of a 
squirrel, or when the dogwood trees begin to bloom. It 
is not a good plan to plant corn during a period of cold 
wet weather. The corn will usually produce a better 
crop if we wait until the soil becomes warm and mellow. 
It has been demonstrated that a rich sandy loam is 
much easier to get into condition for corn than any 



Fig. 158.—Different kinds of corn. 


other soil, for there is less trouble in both preparation 
and cultivation. Hilly soils are not adapted to growing 
corn, because they wash badly and are not easily cul¬ 
tivated. 

Planting and Cultivation—There are three common 
methods of planting corn. On the hilly fields, the corn 
should be planted flat, that is upon the level surface of 
the field. In dry sections corn is usually planted in a 
“water furrow.” Wet, flat lands are often better planted 
upon ridges. 

Many farmers plant too deep. They forget that corn 
begins to germinate hurriedly and that it will be grow¬ 
ing within a few days, if the conditions are right. From 





216 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


one to two inches will insure a good stand, better ger¬ 
mination and a better root system. 

It is not profitable to plant corn too thick, even if 
we are sure that there will be ample moisture to mature 
a crop. The ears are smaller and the number of bushels 
will be no greater. If the weather becomes very dry, 
thick corn will suffer much from over-crowding. We 
consider about three and one half feet as the most desir¬ 
able width for rows of corn. The grains in each row 



Fig. 159.—Checked corn provides a means of cross cultivation. 


should be at least twenty inches apart. Checking corn 
prevents planting too thick, if only two grains are 
planted in each hill, and also, the advantage of cross- 
cultivation may save some expense in producing the 
crop. 

Cultivation should begin before the corn is planted, 
by having a well prepared, clean seed bed. Before the 
corn comes up, the field may be harrowed to destroy 
any small weeds that are starting. If the weather is 
dry and hot just after planting, a roller, made from a 
log, will crush the clods and conserve the moisture. It 
should be followed by a harrow to prevent the soil from 




CORN GROWING 


217 


blowing. A wheel from a mower will also help for pul¬ 
verizing the surface between the rows. 

The first plowing with a cultivator should be as close 
to the plants as possible and deeper than later cultiva¬ 
tions. During the period of growth from the appearance 
of the third leaf until the corn is beginning to tassel, 
there should be some kind of a cultivation each week. 
Weeds should be kept out, soil kept covered with a dust 
mulch, and the crust kept broken by this practice. 



Fig. 160. —Corn cultivation. It is necessary to cultivate two rows at one time 
in such a large field. 


When the stalks become large, the cultivator should be 
set so that it will not cut the roots near the row of 
corn. 

Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing.—Pasturing or 
“hogging-off” corn has become a profitable method of 
caring for the corn crop. When the ears begin to 
mature, a small portion of the field is usually fenced 
with a temporary fence, and the hogs turned in. After 
the animals have become accustomed to a full feed, 
they may be allowed the range of the entire field. In 
order to provide a continuous supply of corn for the 
purpose, early varieties may be planted for an early 






218 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


beginning, with later varieties to follow. This method 
practically eliminates the expense of harvesting the 
crop. 

If the grain is to be used for other feeding than in 
the field, the corn is either snapped or husked. The 
snapped corn has enough of the husk to prevent the 
attacks of weevil and to protect the grain. Corn stored 
in cribs will be better if not husked. 

Marketing corn is best accomplished by feeding the 
corn to growing livestock and driving it to market on 



Fig. 161.—Marketing grain on the hoof. 


the hoof. A well known authority has remarked that 
“the best sack for corn is a pigskin or a cowhide.” If 
we are selling the grain, it is well to watch the price 
quoted in market reports of the newspapers. The object 
should be to sell when the price is highest. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the varieties of corn produced in your community. 

2. Find out the planting dates for corn near your school. 

3. What kinds of soils produce the best corn? What was the 
largest yield of corn near your home last year? 

4. What are the advantages of planting corn flat, in furrows, 
on ridges? 





CORN GROWING 


219 

5. Make an outline of the steps you would follow in culti¬ 
vating a field of com during the season. 

6. What do we mean by the following: a drill row, a check 
row, a down row, a water furrow, a dead furrow, and mulch? 

7. Visit a crib of corn near the school and estimate the 
number of bushels in the crib. (Multiply the number of cubic 
feet in the crib by two-fifths.) 

8. What has been the market price of corn at your town 
during the past year? 

9. How many bushels of corn does it require to produce one 
hundred pounds of pork? 

10. For what do we raise most of our white corn? Yellow 
com? 

11. Name some products made from corn. 

Exercise 1 

. Object: To determine the percentage of shelled corn. 
Materials: Ears of corn, scales, pencil, and paper. 

Procedure: Estimate the shelling percentage or quality of corn 
by shelling ten ears; weigh the shelled grain and the cob. Then 
find what percentage the shelled corn is of the total weight. 
Try this with three varieties. Which has the more corn, shallow¬ 
er deep-grained ears? 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Chaff. The external coverings of grains. 

Checked. Planted in squares, as corn. 

Conserve. To keep from loss or destruction. 

Eliminate. To remove injurious substances. 

Pulverize. To reduce to power. 

Snapped. To break squarely, with a snap or jerk. 

Water furrow. An open furrow, between ridges. 

REFERENCES 

“Corn Growing Under Droughty Conditions,” U. S. Dept, of 
Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 773. 

“Corn Belt Farming System Which Saves Labor by Hogging- 
Down Crops,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 614. 

“Corn Cultivation,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 441, 


CHAPTER XVIII 


THE SMALL GRAINS 

Oats. An Important Crop.—More than half of the 
oats produced in the United States is grown in six 
states; Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wis¬ 
consin, and Nebraska. The farmers of these states 
raise spring oats. Oklahoma and Texas are the leading 
oat producing states of the South. 

The soils that are best adopted for corn will grow 
the best crop of oats. Loam and clay soils hold mois¬ 
ture longer and provide enough plant food to produce 
an abundant crop. Oats have a slightly wider range of 
latitude than corn. The spring varieties are very resist¬ 
ant to frost, being grown farther north, while the winter 
oats will grow well in the South. More water is required 
to produce a bushel of dry oats than to grow the same 
weight of wheat or corn. Soil that is too rich produces 
a very rank growth of the plant and causes falling of 
the grain before ripening. 

Oats should not be grown under conditions very unlike 
those in which the seed was grown. Perhaps our winter 
oats are some strain of the Winter Turf or Red Rust¬ 
proof varieties. Some of the Red Rustproof oats are 
grown as spring oats. Northern white oats and black 
oats are usually sown in the spring. 

Rotation With Other Crops.—The greater part of 
the oat crop of the United States is sown upon the 
stubble of the corn crop of the previous season. This 
saves the expense of plowing. When desired, clover, 
220 


THE SMALL GRAINS 


221 


alfalfa, or grass seed may be mixed with the oats seed 
broadcasted. Under favorable conditions, the grass 
stand will be suitable for winter pasturing or hay during 
the next year. Some farmers have found that a mixture 
of oats and barley will yield almost as much as each 
would if planted separately. 



Fig. 162a.—'Treating seed oats. The necessary equipment is shown. 


Preparation and Planting.—Oat land will usually 
yield more in the South if plowed during the fall and 
winter. After the middle of January, it is better to 
double disk the land, harrow, and broadcast or drill 
from February twenty-fifth to March the twenty-fifth. 
Winter plowed land should be left rough to avoid blow¬ 
ing or washing. Oats should not be covered too deeply. 

Fall sown oats need an opportunity for a good growth 















222 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

before frost. The last week in September or the first 
week in October is the best time to sow. There are 
many advantages in sowing oats at that time, how¬ 
ever one may be guided by the conditions in his locality. 
The soil is usually in very good condition. The work 
does not interfere greatly with other farm work. In 
fact, the cotton or corn stalks may be disked and the 


Fig. 162b.—Treating seed oats with the formaldehyde solution. One man is 
stirring the oats with the shovel while the other sprinkles. 

oats broadcasted with very little extra expense. Winter 
oats ripen early and avoid the hot dry weather. It is 
very much better to sow winter oats than spring oats 
if they will survive the winter. From two to two and 
one-half bushels of oats are sown per acre. It pays 
to treat seed oats with formaldehyde to destroy smut. 
Your county agricultural demonstrator will suggest a 
method of using the treatment. 











THE SMALL GRAINS 


223 


Harvesting.—The grain should be cut while in the 
hard dough stage. It is a good plan to have the oats 
well shocked immediately after cutting. Thrashing 
should not be delayed longer than necessary, but the 
oats should go through a sweat in the shock. This will 
avoid sweating or burning in the bin. 

Marketing the oat crop involves about the same 
problems as the corn crop; the more we feed on the 



Fig. 163.—Oats in the shock, showing the proper bracing and capping. 


farm, the more profit each bushel will represent. Oats 
ground with corn provide one of the best grain feeds 
obtainable for raising pigs or calves. It is very im¬ 
portant to save enough oats to feed the work horses 
during the working season and winter. 

Wheat.—The great source of bread for Americans is 
wheat. The United States produces more wheat than 
any other country in the world. Those states from 




224 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


North Dakota to Texas produce the greater part of 
the American wheat crop. South of central Nebraska, 
Iowa, and Illinois, the farmers raise what is known as 
winter wheat. They sow the seed in the fall and 



Fig. 164.—Com and oats provide the principal grain feed for our farm 
animals. 


harvest the next summer. The northern section of our 
wheat belt grows Spring wheat. The seed is sown early 
in the spring and the wheat is harvested in the fall. 

Varieties.—Since most of our wheat is made into 
flour, millers have recognized two kinds known as hard 






THE SMALL GRAINS 


225 


and soft wheats. Hard wheats are more desirable for 
making flour for light bread. The grain has a hard 
glossy substance inside the coating which is usually 
darker in color than that of the soft wheat. The starchy 



Fig. 165.—Wheat plants. Note the fibrous nature of the roots. 

glutinous nature of soft wheats makes them desirable 
for making crackers and biscuits. 

Kharkof and Turkey wheat are the most popular 
varieties in the Southwest. They are known as hard 
wheats. Farther east, red winter wheats and soft white 
common wheats of several varieties are grown. Many 









226 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


growers of wheat have the habit of mixing several 
varieties, or paying very little attention to the variety 
at all. It is very desirable that each community grow¬ 
ing wheat for the market should develop one variety for 
that community. This should be kept pure by selecting 
out the best heads and growing them in seed plots until 
enough seed is produced for a field. Within two or 
three years, a pure strain of seed wheat may be had 
that will be adapted to the community and perhaps 
represent the highest yielding variety. 



Fig. 166 .—Drilling wheat. 


Soils for Wheat.—The soils for wheat are of no 
special type, if the moisture, fertility, and climatic con¬ 
ditions are favorable. Clay loam is the most common 
type in the wheat belt, but the grain is grown quite 
extensively upon soils adapted to corn. With the excep¬ 
tion of the early part of the growing season, wheat will 
grow with a very light water supply. A high yield 
depends upon a large amount of fertility in the top 
layer of soil, because the roots are shallow. 



THE SMALL GRAINS 


227 


Preparation and Planting.—The common practice of 
preparing wheat land in the semi-arid districts is to 
disk the field, immediately after harvesting the crop, 
even before the grain is shocked. This cultivation pre¬ 
vents the caking of the soil and forms a dust mulch to 
prevent the escape of moisture. As soon as the grain 
is threshed, the field is plowed, about five or six inches 
deep. If there are clods, disking again is desirable. 



Fig. 167.—Wheat in the shock. The grain is protected from storms and other 
causes of waste. 


Following rain, the field should be disked again. Sandy 
soils may be listed to prevent blowing and packing of. 
the soil. The following general principle of preparing 
a seed bed for wheat should be observed; a firm moist 
underlayer of soil with a covering of loose soil should 
be obtained by the process of cultivation. If the wheat 
crop follows corn or sorghum crops, a saving in the 
production of the crop may be made. After the stalks 
are removed, disking is desirable. Then the wheat may 
be drilled without the extra expense of plowing. 

Planting in September is usually productive of the 




228 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


best results, provided chinch bugs, Hessian fly and other 
insects are not present to cause great damage to the 
young crop. Moisture is also necessary. It may be 
advisable to wait until the middle or the last of October 
to sow wheat, if the conditions are not favorable earlier. 

The rate of seeding, or the amount sown per acre 
depends upon the climatic conditions and the fertility 
of the soil. From three to six pecks per acre is enough 
seed. 



Fig. 168 —Rye prevents the washing of poor soils, provides some pasture and 
a supply of green manure to be turned under. 


Wheat may be broadcasted or drilled. For a small 
field, it is perhaps as well to broadcast. Drilling insures 
a more even stand, covers the seeds better, provides a 
start that will enable the plants to withstand winter 
better, and permits sowing grass seed. 

Winter wheat provides some valuable pasture during 
these months when other pastures are not available. If 
the ground is dry, the plants are not injured, and pas¬ 
turing prevents rank growth. There is no harm done 
to the yield if the cattle are not kept too long on the 
field. 



THE SMALL GRAINS 


229 


Harvesting and Marketing.—As soon as the straw 
has ripened so that the grain will not mold in the shock, 
it may be cut. Round shocks of twelve to fourteen 
bundles are the most convenient. These shocks should 
be capped, if the grain remains in the field for some 
time. Curing in the shock requires two or three weeks, 
after which the wheat is threshed. 

Most wheat is marketed immediately, but it may be 
stored for some time without loss of weight. The low 
prices often paid for wheat at thrashing time should 
be an inducement to farmers to feed most of it on the 
farm. Poultry will produce greater profits with a large 
amount of wheat in their ration. 

Rye.—Very little rye is grown in the United States 
for table use. In Northern Europe, there is more rye 
grown than any other grain; black, white and yellow 
varieties being produced. Recently varieties have been 
introduced which produce more grain than our ordinary 
kinds. In Michigan, Rosen rye has been introduced. 
Spring rye is common in the Northwest. 

Soils for rye may be poorer than for any other grain 
crop. Light sandy soils are often sown to rye for a 
fall cover crop. This prevents blowing and provides 
organic matter to be plowed under. Rye will endure 
great extremes of heat and moisture. 

Time and Method of Planting.—Rye is usually sown 
in the fall after there is sufficient moisture to maintain 
growth. From one to two bushels of seed per acre 
may be sown. The preparation and sowing is quite 
similar to that for wheat and oats. 

Uses.—In Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New York, 
the crop is used largely for pasture. The grain is 
consumed mostly by feeding hogs. The straw is valu¬ 
able for packing. It is a good plan to raise a small 


230 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


field of rye, to prevent the washing of soils, to provide 
winter pasture for the chickens and pigs, and to furnish 
fertility for the soil. 

Barley.—There are a number of different types of 
barley. The common six-rowed kind is grown in most 
places where barley is planted. The most successful 
planting is winter barley. Spring barley does better 
in the Northwest. 

Soils adapted for growing oats and corn are suitable 
for barley. It should be planted from September fif¬ 
teenth to October fifteenth. The rate of seeding is 
slightly over two bushels per acre. 

For a balanced grain ration, barley excels all other 
grains. It has enough fat for fattening, and enough 
protein for growing. Ground barley is excellent hog 
feed. It mixes well when ground with corn or other 
grains. 

In order to prevent shattering and to prevent dis¬ 
agreeable pricking by the beards, barley should be 
cut as green as possible to keep the grain from spoiling. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name four principal small-grain crops produced in the 
United States, and give the uses of each. 

2. Give the commercial weight of the small grain crops per 

bushel. J 

3. Which of the small grains studied are raised in your com¬ 
munity? 

4. Give the planting dates for planting small grains. 

5. What are cereals, cover crops, beards, chaff, and lodging? 

6. Outline the steps in harvesting and thrashing wheat. 

7. Mention some methods of marketing cereals. 

8. How is the land prepared in your community for sowing 
small grains? 

9. Give the current market prices of grains, 

10. Discuss the storing ,of small grains. 


THE SMALL GRAINS 


231 


PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To learn the characteristics of pure sample of grain. 
Material: Samples of small grains, bottles. 

Procedure: Collect as many different varieties of wheat, oats, 
rye, and barley as you can and put small samples in bottles for 
use in the class room. The grains should be selected so that a 
pure sample may be had of each bottle. 

Try a germination test of the grain, with wet blotting paper, 
to see what percentage of the seed will grow. 

Exercise 2 

Object: To learn the kinds of small grains. 

Procedure: Mix a sample of several varieties: a little oats, 
rye, and wheat. Now see if you can separate the different kinds. 
Collect the commercial products made from cereals: rolled oats, 
flour, crackers, bread, cake, macaroni, puffed wheat, bran, mid¬ 
dlings, cream of wheat, and wheatena. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Broadcas . Scattering seed in all directions. 

Caking. To form or harden into a cake or mass. 

Capped. To cover the top. 

Disked. Cultivation by a disk harrow. 

Formaldehyde. A gaseous compound. 

Glutinous. Of the nature of glue, sticky. 

Inducement. State of being induced. 

Listed. Plowed with a lister which turns the soil to the right 
and left at the same time. 

Miller. One who operates a mill. 

Shock. A conical pile of sheaves of grain set up in the field. 
Stubble. The stumps of wheat, rye, or other grain. 

REFERENCES 

“Winter Oats for the South,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bu_. 
436. 

“Spring Oat Production,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 892. 
“Winter Barley,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 518. 

“Barley Culture in the Southern States,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., 
Farmers’ Bui. 427. 


CHAPTER XIX 

FORAGE CROPS 


Sorghums.—In following out a crop rotation, grain 
and sweet sorghums are often more profitable than 
grasses or corn. They provide both roughage and grain 
for the farm animals. Most of those varieties grown 
in the Southwest are known as sweet sorghums. Regard¬ 
less of dry or wet weather, the sorghums produce a 
larger number of tons of feed per acre than any other 
crop. If sorghum is grown for hay, it should be planted 
early, so that it may be cut in August. Seed broad¬ 
casted at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre, 
will produce the best hay. By growing smaller stalks, 
they will be less difficult to cure for hay. The addition 
of a bushel of cowpeas or soy beans to the seeding of 
each acre will greatly improve the quality of the feed. 
If the sorghum plants are to be used for silage or for 
grain, it should be planted in rows and cultivated. 

Sweet sorghum is often cut green and fed to hogs or 
cows, in addition to the grain feed. 

Kafir, milo, and feterita are the grain sorghums best 
suited to localities where the rainfall is less than thirty 
inches each year. Milo is perhaps the best grain pro¬ 
ducing crop. There are three popular kinds of kafir, 
the Red, White and Blackhull. Feterita is a very early 
crop and drought resistant. This makes it an important 
crop for early feed. From six to eight pounds of seed 
are needed to plant one acre. 

In raising sorghum for grain, the seed should not be 


232 


FORAGE CROPS 


233 


planted too thick. Plates containing small holes may¬ 
be placed in corn planters for planting the seed properly. 
Cultivation should be shallow, creating a dust mulch. 

In planting for hay forty to sixty pounds of seed may 
be broadcasted. In sections where the corn crops are 
not sure, it is advisable to put up sorghum and kafir 
silage. A supply of succulent feed is thus insured for 
the dry season and winter months. 

Sorghums may be cut by a corn binder if the plants 
stand erect. It is important to shock the bundles as 



Fig. 169.—A field of sorghum. 


soon as they are cut. On account of the bending over 
of the heads, milo should be harvested by removing 
the heads with a sharp knife. 

Seed of sorghums should be stored in a dry place 
after it is thoroughly cured. The grain absorbs mois¬ 
ture and will mold. Sacks containing the grain should 
not be piled too close together, because the grain will 
heat. 

Broom Corn is raised extensively in Oklahoma. 
Other states with a soil and cliipate of a similar nature 
may produce good broom corn. Soil that will yield good 



234 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


corn, or the lighter sandy soils will produce good broom 
corn. The dwarf variety is the most popular and 
valuable. It is drought resistant and produces a long 
well-fibered brush. The height of the stalks averages 
about five feet, making it convenient to pull the brush. 



Fig. 170.—Products of broom corn. 


The earliness and high yielding qualities of the dwarf 
broom corn makes it a very desirable variety. 

Planting is generally completed during the month of 
May. Seed is sown in drills about three and one-half 
feet apart with stalks two feet apart in the row. Early 
and frequent cultivation is necessary to keep the weeds 
from crowding out the slow growing plants. A harrow 








FORAGE CROPS 


235 



will serve for the first cultivations, if it is drawn length¬ 
wise of the row. 

When the broom corn is in bloom, the brush is pulled. 
This method secures a better grade of brush with a 


Fig. 171.—A. Johnson grass. Note the runner or under¬ 
ground stem. 

B. Sudan grass. * 

green color. Tall varieties must be bent over or “tabled” 
before pulling. Dwarf varieties do not require “tabling.” 

After pulling, the brush is piled upon stalks in a thin 
row upon the ground. It is left until partly dried. Shad¬ 
ing and piling in thin layers will aid greatly in securing 
an even drying. As soon as the brooms have partly 








236 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


cured, they should be stored in a dry place, where they 
will not heat or mold. Discolored or brittle brushes 
are of an inferior grade and are not very valuable for 
making brooms. Seeding, grading, and baling, are profit¬ 
able to secure the highest prices. Broom corn should 
not be grown near other sorghums, because it crosses 
during pollination, producing an inferior product. It 



Fig. 172.—Cowpeas in the field. 


is suggested that the grower of broom corn start with 
a small field, learning the business as it develops. 

GRASSES 

Sudan grass was introduced into America by the 
United States Department of Agriculture, and was first 
planted at the experiment station, at Chillicothe, Texas. 
Less than one-half pound of seeds was imported from 
Khartum, in the Sudan Region of Africa. This seed 
has been the source of a very valuable crop. 

Sudan grass is similar to Johnson grass in general 
appearance, but it is an annual, growing from seed each 





FORAGE CROPS 


237 


year. It does not have the underground root stalk like 
Johnson grass, which causes so much trouble. The 
leaves are broader and more numerous than those of 
Johnson grass. (Figure 171.) 

Planting should be completed during the month of 
May. Seed should be broadcasted at the rate of sixteen 
to twenty-four pounds per acre. Drilling in rows three 
and one-half feet wide requires only three or four pounds 
per acre. Sudan grass does best when planted without 
mixing with other grass seed. 



Fig. 173.—Peanuts growing in a sandy field. 


Harvesting should start as soon as the first heads 
begin to show in the field. Cuttings may be made 
during the year, depending upon the season or weather 
conditions. The crop may be cut with a mowing ma¬ 
chine. Cutting should be done in the morning, and the 
hay raked up in the afternoon. The hay cures rapidly 
if placed in cocks. As soon as the hay has gone through 
a sweat, it should be hauled to the barn and stored. 

Bermuda grass is suited for grazing and permanent 
pastures. It will grow in waste places, and forms a 




238 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


close network of roots that will enable the crop to with¬ 
stand much trampling by cattle. After being pastured 
for a season, much hay may be cut from the meadow. 
Bermuda seeds may be broadcasted and covered with 
a roller. Roots may be chopped and scattered over a 
prepared seed bed and covered by disking. Another 
method of planting is laying off the furrows, dropping 
by hand the roots, and covering them with a hoe. 



Fig. 174.—Threshing peanuts with a small grain thresher. 


Wild Grasses are the source of a large amount of 
hay in many localities. It is generally more profitable 
to raise cultivated grasses in a system of rotation than 
to depend upon the crop of wild hay. Pastures should 
be kept free from weeds. 

Johnson Grass sods may be handled profitably by 
disking and planting winter oats. The crop of oats 
will ripen and may be cut the next spring before the 
grass is high enough to interfere. Then one or two 
crops of Johnson grass hay may be harvested before the 
fall seeding with oats. 





FORAGE CROPS 


239 


LEGUMES 

Those plants which bear seed in pods and have nodules 
upon their roots for gathering nitrogen are called 
legumes. Beans, peas, clover, and peanuts belong to 
this group. 

Cowpeas should be grown on every southern farm. 
They not only provide a supply of food for animals but 
also for man. Soil is greatly enriched with the nitrogen 
gathered by the plants, by plowing under the cropland 
pasturing with hogs and cattle. (Figure 172.) Whip¬ 
poorwill and New Era varieties are the best cowpeas 
for general planting. Hay may be made from such 
varieties as the Red Ripper, Iron, and Clay. The 
Speckled Crowder and Blackeyed varieties are the best 
for raising seed. 

During April, May or June, cowpeas may be planted. 
Broadcasting, planting in the row or mixing with corn 
are common methods followed. Broadcasted seed re¬ 
quires about two bushels per acre, while drilling requires 
about one and one-half bushels per acre. 

Harvesting is often accomplished by plowing out the 
vines, curing in wind rows, and storing in the barn 
where there is plenty of air. When the earliest pods 
begin to ripen the cowpeas may be mowed. They are 
left during the day and bunched until dry. Hogs, and 
cattle will harvest the crop better than it can be done 
by any other method, after enough seed has been saved 
for home use. 

Soy Beans are valuable as a forage crop, being rich in 
protein. The Mammoth Yellow and the Small Yellow 
are the most profitable varieties. They are planted in 
rows and are more carefully cultivated than cowpeas. 
The treatment of the hay and seed of the two crops is 
about the same. 


240 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Peanuts are well adapted to the Southwest, especially 
to the lighter sandy loam soils. Droughts or failures 




Fig. 175.—Alfalfa haying scenes. The small haycocks are being protected 
from rain by the canvases. 


of other crops have influenced farmers to cultivate pea¬ 
nuts very extensively. The nuts may be marketed, and 
the hay is very desirable for feeding hogs and cattle. 





FORAGE CROPS 


241 


The Virginia Bunch, the Virginia Runner, Spanish 
and the Tennessee Red are among the most popular 
varieties. 

Peanuts are planted either whole or shelled. The 
larger varieties will give a better stand if shelled, be¬ 
cause so many pods do not contain good seeds. The 
last half of the month of April is the most common 
time for planting. The rows are three feet apart, and 
the peanuts are spaced at a distance of about one foot 
in the row, covered to a depth of one inch and a half. 
One peck of shelled peanuts, or one and one-fourth 
bushels of pod peanuts will plant one acre. 

Cultivation is similar to that for corn or beans. After 
the pods begin to form, the vines should not be dis¬ 
turbed. 

Harvesting is best accomplished by cutting the vines 
for hay and turning the hogs in to eat the nuts. A 
plow or potato digger will loosen the vines from the 
soil. After they have begun to cure, the vines may be 
piled for drying. The peanuts are then placed in cocks. 
A long pole is driven into the ground, with two cross 
pieces to hold up the vines, which are then stacked about 
the pole. The shock is capped with hay. The best 
grades of nuts are picked by hand. Spanish peanuts 
are threshed with a machine. The hay is baled for 
feeding. 

Alfalfa. The reason why more people do not grow 
alfalfa is not because it lacks in value as a forage crop, 
but because it is different from those plants which they 
have been growing. It may be grown in well drained 
soils where there is plenty of lime and fertility. The 
creek and river bottoms are the best adapted for alfalfa. 

The soil should be well pulverized, free from trash, 
and rubbish. If possible it should be plowed some time 


242 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


before planting. A field where cowpeas have been 
grown will make a more satisfactory seed bed than one 
where weeds have started. Plowing for fall seeding 
should be done in the spring or early summer, being 
kept clean by harrowing. 

Alfalfa seed is usually broadcasted, but a drill made 
for the purpose will insure a more even stand. The 
seed should not be covered too deeply. The amount of 
seed per acre varies with the conditions under which it 
is planted. From eight to twenty-five pounds per acre 
may be used. Fall planting is usually completed during 
the early part of September. It is best because the weeds 
do not interfere with the growth, and the soil is in better 
condition. If alfalfa is planted in the spring, it should 
be sown in the latter part of March to April the tenth. 

If alfalfa has not been grown upon the land it is well 
to haul a few loads of earth from a field where a good 
crop has been grown and broadcast it over the field. 
This serves to inoculate the soil with certain bacteria 
which are necessary for the growth of nodules upon the 
roots. These bacteria may be secured in small cans from 
seed houses for treating the seed at the time of sowing. 

The hay is cut just as the crop is coming into bloom. 
It is best to cut in the morning, leaving the hay until the 
following day, raking it into windrows. The hay is left 
in the row from two to four days, after which it may be 
stacked or baled. 

Most varieties of alfalfa are adapted to the South. 
The drier land seems to prefer the Turkestan, Grimm’s 
or dry land varieties. 

It is often suggested that alfalfa should not be pastured 
until the second season, giving the plants a chance to be¬ 
come well rooted. Cattle bloat if they eat green alfalfa 
when it is wet. Hogs do better with some corn or alfalfa. 


FORAGE CROPS 


243 


Clovers.— Alsike, bur, crimson, melilotus, lespedeza, 
and white clovers are grown in various localities with 
some success. The first two are used mostly for pastures 
on low lands. Crimson clover matures early, making hay 
before other crops develop. It improves the soil and 
furnishes pasture. Melilotus is generally known as sweet 
clover. It is similar to alfalfa, but will grow upon poorer 
soils. A mixture with Johnson grass will produce an 
excellent crop. Lespedeza grows wild in many portions 
of the South. It is almost as valuable as alfalfa for hay 
and for grazing. White clover is well suited for lawns 
and pastures. It is the best bee pasture obtainable. 

Vetch.— Vetch will grow where other legumes are 
grown. The winter vetch remains green all winter. The 
root system is extensive, enriching the soil. The pasture 
and hay are of much value. Oats and vetch should be 
sown in the month of September. One fourth as much 
vetch as oats is usually sown. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a forage crop? Prepare a list of six familiar forage 
crops in your community. For what purpose is each used? 

2. Give several reasons for planting forage crops in the spring. 
In the fall. 

3. Name three important grasses used for forage. Give several 
facts about each. 

4. Name four grain sorghums. 

5. Mention three ways of sodding land with Bermuda. 

6. What is the best method of handling land infested with 
Johnson grass? 

7. What is a legume? Name four legume crops produced in 
the South. Which variety is best adapted to your community? 

8. Give three important reasons why legumes are considered 
such valuable crops. 

9. State three ways of growing cowpeas on a farm. Name 
three varieties of peas and peanuts. 

10. How is hay handled on the farm? 


244 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


11. When should alfalfa be used for pasture? . 

12. How is alfalfa soil inoculated? 

13. What clover makes the best pasture for bees? 

14. What forage crops are best for grass and lawns? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To collect and study seeds of forage crops. 

Materials: Collect samples of seeds mentioned in this chapter. 
Examine them for impurities. Do you find any weed seeds 
present? Count out one hundred seeds of each forage crop, and 
estimate the number of seeds that do not belong to the kind 
you are studying. Estimate the percentage of impurities. Plant 
some broom corn, kafir, Sudan grass, soy beans, or cowpeas in 
your garden and see how they grow. Raise two different kinds 
of peanuts to find out which is better. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Cocks. A small conical pile of hay. 

Forage. Rough feed for animals, such as hay, straw. 

Furrow. A trench made by a plow. 

Grain. Sorghum, a cereal grass raised for grain and fodder. 
Inoculate. To introduce bacteria by inoculation. 

Leguminous. Belonging to a large family of legume bearing 
plants. 

Permanent. Continuing in the same state, fixed. 

Plates. A flat thin piece of metal of uniform thickness and 
containing small holes. 

Sweet Sorghum. A variety of cereal grass used for making 
syrup and forage. 

Windrows. A row of hay raked up to dry before being heaped 
into cocks. 

REFERENCES 

The following bulletins may be secured from the United States 
Department of Agriculture: 

“Cowpea Utilization/’ Bui. 1153. 

“The Making and Feeding of Silage,” Bui. 578. 

“Bermuda Grass,” Bui. 814. 

“Market Hay,” Bui. 508. 


forage crops 


“The Peanut/’ Bui. 431. 

“Sudan Grass,” Bui. 605. 

“Use of Corn, Kafir, and Cowpeas 
Sweet Clover, Growing the Crop, 
Alfalfa,” Bui. 339. 

“Soy Beans,” Bui. 372. 


m the Home,” Bui. 559 
” Bui. 707. 


245 


CHAPTER XX 


COTTON 

The World’s Best Fiber.—Cotton may well be called 
“king of the fiber crops.” In quantity of production it 
ranks first as the world’s textile fiber. It is a staple crop 
that has supplied man with clothing for many ages. Its 
seed, stalks, and roots are now being converted into feed, 
food for the table, fertilizer, paper stock, and medicine. 
While a number of countries are engaged in cotton pro¬ 
duction, three-fourths of the world’s crop is produced in 
the Southern states with an area of about one-fourth of 
that of the United States. Cotton growing is well adapted 
to the moist, warm, even climate, and soils of the South. 
These conditions, together with farmers trained in the 
art of cotton growing and backed by cheap labor, lead 
one to believe that cotton will remain the chief money 
crop of the southern farmer. 

Types of Cotton.—We have two principal types of 
cotton in the United States known as Upland and Sea 
Island Cotton. The upland is classified into what is 
known as short and long staple cotton. The short staple 
varieties produce lint that ranges in length from % to 
1% 6 inches. The long staple varieties produce lint of a 
better grade that ranges from 1% to IV 2 inches in length. 
The short staple varieties may be grown successfully on 
many kinds of soils varying from the thin light sandy 
soils to the heavier loams. The long staple varieties are 
more profitable when grown on bottom lands and very 
246 


COTTON 


247 


fertile, moist, loam soils. The short and long staple 
upland cotton makes up the bulk of the cotton crop. 

Sea Island cotton is grown in small areas along the 
South Atlantic and Gulf Coast. It differs from the 
upland cotton in that the seed is small and black and 
the lint is fine, strong, and silky, varying from l 1 /, to 2 
inches in length. Owing to its low yields and special 
environment Sea Island cotton is not grown extensively. 



Fic, 176—Removing stalks from cotton field and fall plowing. 


The Leading Cotton States.—The principal cotton 
producing states are: Texas, Georgia, Alabama, South 
Carolina, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Arkansas, North Caro¬ 
lina, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Florida. 

Sea Island cotton is grown in Florida, Georgia, and 
South Carolina. Cotton requires six months of warm 
weather for growth and maturity and for this reason its 
production will be restricted to warm climates. 

Varieties of Cotton.—We have many varieties of 
Upland cotton grown in the United States. In many 
ways they are similar in type of stalk and character of 
lint. The difference is the result of selection, breeding, 




248 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

and environment. Considerable experimental work and 
practical tests have been carried on in the South to deter¬ 
mine the best varieties of cotton to grow. Therefore, 
before selecting a variety to plant in your locality, it will 
be well to find out from successful cotton growers and 
your state Agricultural College the names of varieties 
that are best suited to your climate and soil. If the 
farmers of your section produce the same variety of 



Fig. 177.—Cotton planting scene. 


cotton, they will be able to market a grade of standard 
lint and seed. This will insure a better market for their 
crop. The Acala, Mebane, Rowden, Lone Star, Okla. 
Triumph No. 44, Cook’s Improved and Texas Storm 
Proof are some of our most familiar varieties of cotton. 

Soils for Cotton.—Cotton is grown on many types 
of soils throughout the South. The best soil for this crop 
is a deep, fertile, sandy loam. A soil of this type is easily 
tilled, holds the moisture well, and supplies sufficient 
plant food to produce a paying crop. Soils that are very 
thin and wash badly should not be planted to cotton. 





COTTON 


249 


In selecting land for planting cotton it is best not to 
choose soils that have been growing cotton for more than 
two years. Cotton produces well when it - follows such 
crops as oats, wheat, cowpeas, peanuts, corn, kafir, and 
other grain sorghums. 

Preparation of Soils and Methods of Planting Cot¬ 
ton. —If the soil has been planted to cotton the preced¬ 
ing year, it will be necessary to cut up the stalks with a 
stalk cutter so they may be turned under, or gather and 
burn them to control the boll weevil. After disposing of 



Fig. 178.—Cultivating cotton with a tractor, two rows at one time. 


the stalks it is a good plan to break the land in the fall. 
If the breaking is done early the land will collect 
moisture, the organic matter plowed under will have 
time to decay, and considerable plant food will be made 
ready for the young cotton when it is planted. Fall 
plowing also turns up many insects that are hibernating 
in the ground and exposes them to the severe weather. 
In many areas where cotton is grown, the plowing is done 
in February and March. This enables one to grow a 
cover crop such as winter oats or rye. If the land is 
plowed at this time it will be well to “flat-break” the 



250 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


land to a depth of six or eight inches. After breaking 
thoroughly disk and harrow with a section harrow. This 
puts the seed bed in good condition for the crop. 

The two methods of planting cotton are known to prac¬ 
tical farmers as planting on beds and planting on level. 
The beds are prepared by throwing two furrow-slices 
together, known as a “list.” The middles are then 
“bursted” out, which leaves beds that are several inches 
high and from three and one-half to five feet wide. Many 



Fig. 180.—Picking cotton in Texas. 


farmers plant on the list and plow out the middles of the 
rows later. In planting level the seeds are planted in a 
shallow furrow made by opening the level seed bed with 
a bull-tongue plow. The furrows should be about three 
and one-half feet apart. 

The planting on beds is preferred when the soil needs 
drainage or washes badly. Level planting is best where 
the rainfall is limited and the land is level or slightly 
rolling. As a general rule crops that are grown on level 
land are more easily and economically grown than on 
ridged land. 




COTTON 


251 


Time and Planting.—Most of our cotton is planted 
from April 15 to May 15. In states where the last killing 




Fig. 181. — Wagons loaded with cotton at the gin. Above, the cotton is just 
being weighed as it arrives from the field. Below, the bale is heing loaded 
into the farmer’s wagon, ready to be sold. 


frost appears before March 15 the cotton may be planted 
early. If the seed is good, from one-half to one bushel 
will be required to plant one acre, if planted with a cotton 












252 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


planter. Slightly more will be needed if planted by hand. 
In planting cotton seed one should avoid planting too 
deep and too thick. Shallow and thin planting gives 
better results. 

Thinning Young Cotton.—Cotton chopping or 
thinning may begin as soon as the young seedlings show 
from two to four leaves. In some sections the dirt is 



Fig. 182.—Picking out seed. 


thrown from the rotv known as “barring off” and the 
plants thinned out from 12 to 20 inches apart in the row 
with a hoe. In other districts the surface of the ground 
is scraped near the plants and the loose soil and grass 
rolled to the middles with a small implement made for 
the purpose; while in other sections of the South the 
cotton is plowed with cultivators before chopping. In 
thinning, leave from one to two strong plants in a hill, 
and exercise care not to bruise them in carrying on the 



COTTON 


253 


work. If the land is thin, it is best to leave only one 
stalk to the hill, every 18 to 20 inches apart. This will 
give sufficient moisture and plant food to grow a good 
plant. 

Cultivation.—The kind of cultivation necessary for 
cotton will depend on the way it is planted. If it is 
planted in rows, it may be cultivated with walking or 
riding cultivators. Where the area is large, it is more 
profitable to use a two-row riding cultivator. While in 



Fig. 183.—Marketing cotton. 


many hilly sections the cultivation is done by means of 
a “Georgia stock” with “sweep” attachments. The pur¬ 
pose of cultivation is to keep down weeds and keep the 
soil finely pulverized so as to mulch the land to prevent 
the escape of soil water. The proper depth of cultivation 
is from 1% to 3 inches. The crop should be plowed every 
ten days. Good results are obtained when cotton is 
plowed as soon as possible after each rain. 

Manures and Fertilizers for Cotton.—The chief 
sources of manure and fertilizers for the cotton crop are 
barnyard manures, green crops, and commercial ferti- 




254 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


lizers. Natural and green manures are probably the 
cheapest and the most practical for the average farmer. 
Experiments show that in some sections of the South 
good results and considerable profit has been obtained by 
applying from 300 to 600 pounds of properly mixed com¬ 
mercial fertilizer to the acre. Where commercial fer- 



Fig. 184.—Unloading seed at the oil mill. Most farmers sell the seed 
removed from the cotton at the gin. It is scooped into a trough at the oil 
mill and carried to the storeroom by a conveyor. 


tilizers are used, one application is drilled in at planting 
time and another about the time the bolls are being 
formed on the plant. 

Insect Pests of Cotton.— The Mexican boll-weevil 
is the most serious enemy of the cotton crop of the 
United States. This insect probably originated in Mexico 
or Central America and entered the United States at 
Brownsville, Texas. Owing to its rapid spread and de¬ 
structive nature, it attracted government officials in 1894, 





COTTON 


255 


which led to experimental work. Headquarters are main¬ 
tained at Victoria, Texas; Dallas, Texas; and Tallulah, 
Louisiana, to study the life, history, habits, and methods 
of controlling the pest under actual farm conditions. The 
following preventive measures are recommended by Agri¬ 
cultural workers and should be followed by active farm¬ 
ers in controlling the boll weevil: 

1. Collect and burn all cotton stalks and other rubbish 
where the boll weevil may hibernate during the winter. 

2. Practice fall plowing. 

3. Select good seed and plant early maturing varieties. 

4. Plant the cotton as early as possible but try to 
avoid killing frost. Plant in rows wide enough to permit 
late cultivation. 

5. Practice crop rotation so that cotton will not follow 
cotton. 

6. Use fertilizer to hasten the growth and fruiting of 
the crop. 

7. Cultivate timely and thoroughly. 

8. Get your seed from areas free from the boll weevil. 

Poisoning the boll weevil with dry calcium arsenate 

is very effective and economical in areas where we have 
sufficient moisture in the form of dew to collect and dis¬ 
solve the calcium arsenate powder. Where it is not prac¬ 
tical to use calcium arsenate many farmers are applying 
commercial spray mixtures and mixtures of their own 
make with fair results. 

Another familiar cotton pest is the boll worm. This 
insect may best be controlled by planting rows of corn 
through the cotton field at distances so as to attract the 
insect when it makes its appearance. 

Cotton Diseases.— Cotton is subject to several fun¬ 
gous diseases such as, boll rot, cotton wilt, and cotton 
rust. The best method of handling these diseases is to 


256 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

select resistant varieties, rotate the crop, fertilize the 
land, and practice timely and thorough cultivation. 

Harvesting Cotton.—Cotton should be picked as 
soon as possible after opening so as to prevent the lint 
from becoming stained and injured by the weather con¬ 
ditions. In many sections picking may begin as early as 
August and last as late as December. The customary 
plan is to hire hands to pick the cotton, paying them so 
much a hundred pounds. The price varies according to 
the conditions. The cotton is weighed in the field and 
loaded and hauled to storage sheds or to the gin. 

Ginning and Baling Cotton.—Farmers generally 
haul their cotton to the gin as soon as they have picked 
from 1400-1700 pounds of seed cotton. This makes a 
standard bale of 500 pounds of ginned cotton. The 
cotton is removed from the wagon at the gin by suction. 
It is then cleaned and conveyed to the gin saws where 
the seed is separated from the lint. The lint is then 
carried to the press and made into a bale; 27 x 54 x 45 
inches including bagging and ties. The bale is then 
weighed and properly marked and turned over to the 
owner. The seed is weighed and conveyed to the seed 
house if it is sold to the gin company. If not, it is loaded 
and carried away by the owner. 

Seed for Planting.—If one has a good variety of 
purebred cotton it is necessary to take special care not 
to get the seed mixed with other varieties. Foreign seeds 
get mixed with pure seed when the cotton is ginned. This 
is due to the fact that about one bushel of seed remains 
in the gin machinery at all times. If your bale of cotton 
is ginned following a bale of poor staple cotton, you will 
likely get some of the seed mixed with your seed and 
seed from your bale will take their place. This gives 
you the correct weight of seed but it is not all from your 


COTTON 


257 

bale. If you should have several bales of cotton to gin 
and wish to save the seed for planting purposes, it is best 
to have it ginned late in the season when the rush is over 
and the ginner finds time to rid all the machinery of 
undesirable seed. A better plan is to separate the seed 
from the lint by hand, if the acreage to be planted next 
year is small. 

Marketing Cotton.— It is not profitable to market 
cotton in the seed because the buyers are unable to judge 
what class of cotton it will make after ginning. As a 
result, the price paid is about the same for all grades 
because the buyers are not running a risk and protect 
themselves. The farmer who raises a good grade of 
cotton loses money by selling it in the seed. 

The bulk of the cotton crop is sold after it is ginned. 
This enables the farmer who raises the better grades of 
lint to sell his product at a fair price. He also may 
study market quotations and grades of cotton in the 
daily papers, and grade his cotton in order to protect 
himself. 

In recent years the cotton growers of the South are 
marketing their crop cooperatively. This insures a good 
market, careful grading, and uniform prices to the grower. 

The principal grades of cotton are: Middling Fair, 
Strict Good Middling, Good Middling, Strict Middling^ 
Middling, Low Middling, Strict Low Middling, Good 
Ordinary, and Ordinary. 

Marketing Cotton Seed.— The cotton seed in most 
localities is sold to the oil mills. The mills separate 
the seed into hulls, cottonseed meal, cottonseed oil, linters, 
trash, and dirt. 

QUESTIONS 

L State five uses of cotton. Name the two types of cotton. 
Also tell how they differ. 


258 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


2. What are the leading cotton producing states? 

3. Name six varieties of cotton. Which is best adapted to 
your section? Why should the farmers of your section raise 
the same kind of cotton? 

4. What kind of soil and climate is best suited for cotton? 

5. Tell how to prepare soil for cotton. Give four advantages 
of fall plowing. 

6. Explain two methods of planting cotton. Also state the 
proper time to plant cotton seed and the amount to plant to 
the acre. 

7. How should the cotton be thinned? 

8. Tell how to cultivate cottoft. 

9. Name the three classes of farm manures and fertilizers. 
Also give examples of each. 

10. When did the boll weevil enter the United States? What 
is the government doing to eradicate the pest? 

11. What preventive measures should the farmer follow in 
controlling the boll weevil? 

12. Why should cotton be harvested as soon as it opens? 

13. Give the standard weight and dimensions of a bale of * 
cotton as it leaves the gin. 

14. Tell how farmers may keep their seed pure. 

15. Why is it not profitable to market cotton in the seed? 

16. Tell how lint cotton and cottonseed are marketed. 

PRACTICAL WORK 


Exercise 1 

Object: To study .samples of ginned cotton, cottonseed, and 
the by-products of cottonseed. 

Material: Sample of cotton, cottonseed meal, cottonseed 
hulls, cottonseed oil, and linter. 

Procedure: Examine four or five samples of ginned cotton 
for stain, dirt, trash, and length of the fiber. Compare the color 
and size of the different samples of cottonseed. Describe the 
by-products of cottonseed. Find out the uses of each. Test 
samples of cottonseed for vitality by using the “rag don” seed 
tester. How long does it take cottonseed to germinate? 

Results: Write out a report of your study of cotton, cotton¬ 
seed, and the by-products of cottonseed. 


COTTON 


259 


Exercise 2 

Object: To learn how cotton is ginned. 

Material: Notebook, pencil, and a cotton gin. 

Procedure: Secure permission from your parents to visit a 
cotton gin with your teacher. 

1. Give the name and location of the gin. 

2. What kind of gin do you have in your section? 

3. During what part of the year does the gin operate? 

4. How is the cotton weighed before it is ginned? 

5. How many pounds of seed cotton does it take to make a 
bale of lint cotton? 

6. How is the lint removed from the seed? 

7. Tell how the lint is baled. 

8. How is the bale covered and tied? 

9. How many ties are placed on one bale? 

10. How are the bales of cotton marked at the gin? 

11. Explain the cost charged for ginning. 

12. Where does the farmer get the seed frcm his cotton after 
ginning ? 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Calcium Arsenate. A poisonous chemical used for killing boll- 
weevil. 

“Flat-breaking .” Plowing the land so the surface will remain 
flat. 

Fungous. The objective of the noun fungi. A parasitic plant, 
such as mold and mildew. 

Lint. Fluff or cotton fibers that are removed from the cotton¬ 
seed at the gin. 

Staple. The general fiber of wool or cotton. 

Textile. Pertaining to weaving or woven fabric. 

REFERENCES 

“The Boll-weevil Problem,” Farmers’ Bui. 848. 

“Losses from Selling Cotton in the Seed,” Farmers’ Bui. 775. 
“Cotton-ginning Information for Farmers,” Farmers’ Bui. 764. 
“How Insects Affect the Cotton Crop and Means of Combating 
Them,” Farmers’ Bui. 890. 

BOOKS 

“Productive Farm Crops,” Montgomery-Lippincott Company. 


CHAPTER XXI 


SWEET POTATOES 

For Food and Feed. —Sweet potatoes are grown ex¬ 
tensively in the South where they are used as an impor¬ 
tant article of food. Farmers and gardeners in this 
section plant small patches varying from one-fourth to 
one acre in size for home use. Some truckers grow large 
areas to be shipped and marketed in the northern states. 

Sweet potatoes are gaining in popularity since they 
may be served in many delicious ways, such as baked, 
in pies, puddings, candied, and fried. The cull and 
surplus potatoes may be used as feed for livestock on the 
farm and the manufacture of denatured alcohol. 

Climate and Soil Requirements. —The sweet potato 
requires a growing season of four and one-half to five 
months. The climate should be warm, free from frost, 
with sufficient rainfall to promote growth. If we have 
excess rainfall after the vines have covered the rows or 
land and the plants are making their fruit, we have too 
much vine growth which results in low yields of potatoes 
of a very poor quality. 

Sweet potatoes may be grown on many types of soil 
with reasonable success. They do best on sandy loam 
soils having a fair amount of organic matter and plant 
food, with a clay subsoil. Poorly drained soils or the 
heavy clay soils are not adapted to sweet potatoes. 

Soil Preparation. —This crop like many others does 
best when grown in a crop rotation. If the land selected 
260 


SWEET POTATOES 


261 


for the crop has been planted in corn and peas the pre¬ 
ceding year it should be plowed deep in the fall, in order 
to bury and hasten the decay of the organic matter pres¬ 
ent. Further plowing will not be necessary until a few 
weeks before the time for setting out the potato “sets” or 
“slips.” Undesirable vegetation may be kept down by 
harrowing the land with a section harrow or disking it 



Fig. 185.—A small field of sweet potatoes well cultivated. 


from time to time. In the extreme southern section of the 
United States where climate and soil permit other truck 
crops may be grown on the land and followed by 
potatoes. 

Varieties of Sweet Potatoes.—Many varieties of 
sweet potatoes are grown in the South and one should 
study the varieties that have been tried and proven suc¬ 
cessful in his locality before selecting a variety to grow. 
The northern market demands a dry mealy potato while 









262 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the southern consumer prefers a moist-fleshed potato. 
Some of the most adaptable varieties for the potato 
growing region are: Porto Rico, Nancy Hall, Dooley 
Yam, Pumpkin Yam, Bradley Yam, and Georgia Yam. 

Seed Potatoes.—The potato grower may raise his own 
seed or buy them from his neighbor. Whatever the 
source of the seed may be, they should be selected at 
digging time and stored properly for the best results. The 



Fig. 186—Boys setting sweet rotatrrjjp^Sg. 

seed should be from one and one half inches to three 
inches in diameter, uniform in size and color, free from 
cuts and bruises, and rot diseases. The best plan is to 
put the seed in potato baskets or hampers and store them 
in a potato house, cellar, or banks where they will not rot 
or freeze. 

Source of Sets.—Many farmers prefer to raise their 
own potato sets while others had rather buy them. If the 
sets are to be grown at home a hotbed should be prepared 
(see Fig. 104) some time between February 20th and 
March 20th depending on climatic conditions. After 
the hotbed has been prepared and has reached a uniform 









SWEET POTATOES 


263 


heat of 80 degrees F. the seed potatoes may be bedded 
out. The soil layer over the manure in the hotbed should 
be composed of sandy loam soil that has been screened. 
The potatoes are placed carefully in the bed so that they 
will not touch one another. They are then covered with 
three inches of loam soil that has been screened for the 
purpose. The bed is then slightly moistened and the 
glass or canvas covers placed on. On clear warm days 
the covers over the bed should be removed and the sets 



Fig. 187.—Cutting sweet potato vines with a rolling cutter before digging. 


aired and watered. If this work is carefully done, 
the sets should be ready for transplanting into the 
open field between April 15th and May 1st. The grower 
should bed out from 1 1-2 to 3 bushels of seed potatoes 
to produce enough sets to plant one acre of land. Many 
growers in the South plant out a small patch of sets and 
make cuttings or slips from the vines and set the remain¬ 
der of their soil. 

Laying Out Soil for Planting.—As soon as all danger 
of frost is over and the sets on the potato bed are large 



264 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

enough for planting, the land should be. freshly stirred 
to receive the sets. If the sets and slips are to be planted 
on flat land the rows should be laid off about thirty 
inches apart. In case they are planted in bedded rows, 
the rows should be prepared with a turning plow and 
thrown up several inches high. The distance between 
each row should be from 3 1-2 to 4 feet. 

Drawing and Setting Sets.—The best time to plant 
sweet potato sets is just before or after a good rain. Be- 



Fig 188—The sweet potatoes are turned out with a plow, and the boys sort 
them as they put them into baskets. 


fore removing the sets from the bed, the bed should be 
watered thoroughly several hours before drawing the sets. 
In drawing the sets it is best to press down on the potato 
with the left hand and remove the sets having four or 
five leaves with the right hand. The sets are then tied 
in bunches of 100 and placed in the shade to prevent 
wilting. During dry weather it is a good plan to puddle 
the sets and slips before setting them. This is done by 
taking clay and a little decomposed manure and mixing 




SWEET POTATOES 265 

them with water forming a “mud dough.” The roots of 
the sets are then placed in the mud mixture to receive a 
coating of the material. 

Sweet potato sets are planted by hand and with a ma¬ 
chine. If the area to be planted is small they are planted 
by hand. In planting, the sets are dropped about 14 
to 18 inches apart in the row and are planted by opening 
a small hole in the bed with the hand and placing the set 
m the excavation and firming the dirt about the roots of 



Fig. 189—Packing and marketing sweet potatoes. The farmers bring ii 
carloads° P wagons ' They are packed in standard baskets and shipped ii 


it with the fingers. Many growers drop the sets and 
push them into the soil with a stick having a notch or 
fork in the end. The soil is then tamped about the plant. 
If the weather is dry at planting time, it is a good plan 
to make openings in the rows where the plants are to be 
dropped. The set is placed in the opening, watered and 
some dry dirt is placed over the moist soil. Where large 
areas of potatoes are grown, they are planted by a horse 
drawn machine that drops, waters, and sets the slips. 

Cultivation.— Sweet potatoes should be given timely 
and thorough cultivation. They may be hoed several 




266 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


times during the period of growth to mulch them close up 
to the plants and free the land of grass and other harm¬ 
ful weeds. The cultivation should be shallow with some 
horse drawn implement such as harrows and cultivators. 
In turning the vines for plowing, exercise care not to 
bruise them. 

Insect Pests and Diseases of Sweet Potatoes.—■ 

Cutworms are probably the most troublesome insect pest 



Fig. 190.—Storing sweet potatoes. Corn stalks are placed over and under 
the pile. They are then covered with earth. 


of the potato plant. They cut down the young sets as 
soon as they are transplanted into the open ground, 
which results in a poor stand. If the sweet potato crop 
follows a clean cultured crop they are not so harmful. 
Avoid planting sweet potatoes on sod land. 

The sweet potato is also subject to several kinds of 
rots known as black-rot, stem-rot, soft-rot, and dry-rot. 
The best method of controlling these rots is to rotate the 
crop, select seed and plants that are free from the disease, 




SWEET POTATOES 


267 


and fumigate the storage quarters with formalin or sul¬ 
phur. 

Time and Method of Harvesting.—Potatoes should 
be harvested before the first killing frost. If the vines 
are killed by frost, they should be removed from the 
potatoes, to make ready for digging. 

Practical farmers often cut the vines from the potato 
by running a roller cutter on either side of the row on top 
of the bed. The potatoes are then plowed out with a 
turning plow or a plow similar to the turning plow with 
a section of the moldboard removed. As soon as they are 
plowed up they are picked up and piled in small piles 
in the field where they are left for several hours to dry 
out. 

Grading and Hauling Sweet Potatoes from the 
Field.—Before removing the potatoes from the field they 
should be culled or graded into the following grades: 
baking potatoes, canning potatoes, seed potatoes, cuts 
and bruises, diseased potatoes* and small strings. This 
enables the producer to pick up all the potatoes of a given 
class at the same time. 

Marketing.—If the potatoes are selling for a good 
price one may find it profitable to dig the crop before 
maturity and market it. The most common method of 
handling the crop in this case is to dig the potatoes and 
place them in barrels or hampers in the field and load 
them in wagons and haul them to market. Others prefer 
storing and marketing the crop later in the winter when 
prices are good. 

Curing and Storing Sweet Potatoes.—If the farmer 
is growing potatoes only for his home use he will find it 
economical and practical to place first the potatoes in 
thin piles and allow them to dry for five or six days in 


268 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the sun. They may then be stored in hampers or in 
bulk in a potato house, cellar, or potato banks. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give five uses of the sweet potato. 

2. How long should the growing season be for sweet potatoes? 
What kind of soil is best for this crop? 

3. How should soil be prepared for sweet potatoes? 

4. Name five varieties of sweet potatoes. What is the most 
popular variety in your district? 

5. What are the sources of seed potatoes? How do seed sweet 
potatoes differ from eating potatoes? 

6. What is the source of sweet potato sets and slips in your 
section? 

7. Tell how to prepare a hotbed for growing sweet potatoes. 

8. State three important facts to be considered in drawing 
sets from the potato bed. 

9. When is the proper time to set sweet potato plants in the 
open field? How many sets does it take to set one acre of land? 

10. Tell how the slips may be planted in the field. 

11. State five problems to be considered in harvesting and 
marketing sweet potatoes. 

12. Describe a good potato house, cellar or bank. 

13. Name the most successful sweet potato growers in your 
district. 

14. How many pounds does a bushel of sweet potatoes weigh? 

15. Name ten of the principal sweet potato producing states. 

PRACTICAL WORK 

Exercise 1 

Object: To learn about sweet potatoes. 

Material: Secure several varieties of sweet potatoes and study 
them in the school room. 

Procedure: Learn the best size potatoes for baking and can¬ 
ning purposes. 

2. Place a sweet potato in the mouth of a large-mouth bottle 
where it will be partly submerged in the water. See how the 
sets form. 

3. Prepare a small hotbed on the school grounds and grow 


SWEET POTATOES 


269 


sweet potato sets. Home project work in producing potato sets 
for the home garden should be encouraged. 

4. Bake some of the moist-fleshed and dry, mealy varieties 
of sweet potatoes and test them by eating them. 

5. Cure potatoes in the sun and cook them. Obtain newly-dug 
potatoes and cook them. Make a comparison in several ways. 

REFERENCES 

“Vegetable Gardening,” Watts-Orange Judd Co. 

Farmers’ Bulletins, “Home Storage of Vegetables,” 879. 

“Sweet Potato Growing,” 999. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Climatic. Of or pertaining to climate. 

Canvas. A strong cloth used for many things. 

Denature. To render unfit for eating or drinking without 
impairing usefulness for other purposes. 

Excavation. A hollow formed by digging out the earth. 
Screened. To sift, as dirt or gravel, through a screen. 


CHAPTER XXII 


FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 

What Kinds of Enemies Have We?—If there were 
no weeds growing in our field, if there were no molds 
or rots to destroy our plants, if there were no destructive 
insects or bacteria, farming would certainly be a very 
desirable occupation. We would need only to sow and 
reap. Unfortunately, all of the plants and animals which 
we raise upon the farm have either visible or invisible 
enemies. Crops growing in the field may be completely 
destroyed by the attack of insects. Molds, blights and 
wilts may destroy our garden and fruit crops. Cotton 
boll weevil is one of the many enemies of our great 
southern crop. Corn smut and wheat rusts have caused 
great losses. Weeds of all kinds crowd out our more 
valuable food plants. Rats and mice destroy enormous 
amounts of grain each year. Very few of our useful cul¬ 
tivated plants can be mentioned, which do not have some 
enemy in the form of an insect, animal or plant. Many 
of these are not visible and a careful study must be made 
to gain even a limited knowledge of so many enemies. 

Weeds are those plants which grow where they are 
not wanted. Johnson grass might become a valuable 
pla<nt for hay, but it has a habit of living for several 
years in the soil, crowding out other useful plants. Dog 
fennel was once cultivated as a medicinal plant, but it is 
now generally considered a weed. Foxtail and crab 
grasses have been grown in England for centuries as for¬ 
age grasses. They never fail to harm the corn crop that 
270 


FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


271 


has not been thoroughly cultivated. Cockleburs grow on 
almost all kinds of soil. The burs are very well adapted 
to sticking to animals, causing much inconvenience. 
Ragweeds are found everywhere, and they have such a 
disagreeable odor and taste that animals seldom eat 
them. All of these weeds and a multitude of others may 
be found in every community. 

Dodder.—-Certain weeds obtain their food directly 
from the plant which we are trying to grow. They twine 



Fig. 191.— A. Crab grass. B. Cocklebur. C. Ragweed. D. Johnson grass. 
E. Pigweed. 

around the stems of the plant, fastening themselves with 
little suckers and secure their food from the host plant. 
Dodder or “love vine” is the most common plant of this 
type. It is usually found on peas, beans and other 
leguminous crops. You may recognize it as a yellow, 
threadlike growth about the stems. Large amounts pro¬ 
duce orange colored patches in fields. 

Fungus.—Fungus is the name applied to a great group 
of low plant forms which do not have the green coloring 




272 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


matter found in plants with leaves. (The plural is 
Fungi.) Toadstools, puff balls and mushrooms are well 
known types of fleshy fungi. We find them growing 
where there is a supply of organic food, such as may be 



Fig. 192.—Dodder wraps about any kind of plant, 
taking nourishment from the stems. 


found on old logs, decayed leaf material in the woods, or 
near stumps and piles of straw. 

Another type of fungus includes the molds and mil¬ 
dews. You may recognize these as the mold on bread, 
moldy ears of corn, and moldy hay or straw. The rots 




FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


273 


are usually caused by fungi which cannot be seen unless 
they are highly magnified. The brown rots of peaches 
and plums, as well as the rots of many vegetables are 
caused by fungi. 

Wilts and blights do much damage to our crops. Cot¬ 
ton wilt has caused a loss of more than $30,000,000.00 in 



Fig. 193.—Fleshy fungi. 

A. Bracket fungus. E. Puffball. 

B. Toad stool. F. Staghorn fungus. 

C. Sponge mushroom (edible). G. White rot fungus. 

D. Leathercup. 


one year, in the United States. The fungus grows into 
the roots and causes them to decay. The result is the 
wilting of the cotton plant. Pear and apple trees are 
“blighted” by the attacks of bacteria in the tender stems. 
They are recognized by the black leaves and stems dur¬ 
ing the month of May or June. Cucumbers and water¬ 
melons wilt as a result of the fungi which grow upon 
them. 



274 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




A. Smut blasted heads. B. Rust upon wheat stems. 









FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


275 



Smuts and Rusts are the result of fungi which grow 
upon grains and grasses. The large balls of smut which 
grow upon corn stalks are the sacks containing the spores 
of the fungus. They become dry in July or August and 
the black powder is scattered when the puffs are struck. 
Oats and wheat have a smut which causes the blackheads 
noticeable at the time of heading. These heads are often 
called blasted. As much as ten per cent of the crop may 


Fig. 195.—Stages of boll weevil. 

be destroyed by this form of fungus. The very fine 
threads grow inside the stalks until the grain begins to 
head, and the black spores in the form of powder are pro¬ 
duced. Rusts are usually found during a hot rainy sea¬ 
son, in the form of little red pockets on the surface of 
wheat or oat leaves. These may be so thick that the red 
dust rises in clouds when the grain is cut, or the clothes 
will become covered when walking through a field in¬ 
fected with rust. The grain of rusted plants shrivels, and 













276 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


entire wheat fields have been rendered worthless by 
severe attacks. 

Galls and Knots are caused by fungi or bacteria in 
the woody parts of trees or shrubs. The infection is 
made possible through injuries. Black knot is a common 
disease of plum trees. These knots often grow so thickly 
that branches of the plum are killed. Galls are found 
upon the rose. Many young trees have a root gall, and 
a crown gall is a common disease of apple trees. 



Fig. 196. —The effects of plant lice upon corn. Ants carry the lice and 
place them upon the young corn roots and care for them while they rob the 
corn plant. The larger corn in the background is not infected. 


A large number of fungi grow upon wood after it has 
been made into lumber or posts. The white rot attacking 
railroad ties and fence posts causes rapid decay. There 
are many rots and cankers of trees which are caused by 
fungi. 

A list of plants and diseases often attacking them, fol¬ 
lows: 

Alfalfa, leaf spot, root gall, root rot. 

Apple, black rot, blight, canker, brown and pink rots, 
scab and mildew. 





FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


277 


Apricot, black knot, crown gall, scab. 
Barley, rust and smut. 

Blackberry, caneblight, crown gall and rust. 
Bean, blight, mildew, and rust. 

Cabbage, black rot, club rot, and mildew. 
Celery, blights. 



Fig. 197.—Branch of maple covered by maple scale. The small insects live 
under the shells. 


Cherry, black knot, crown gall, leaf spot, mildew and 
scab. 

Corn, blight, rust, smut, root rot, and mildew. 
Cucumber, wilt, mildew, and stem rot. 

Eggplant, blight, leaf spot. 

Elm, blister canker, white rot. 

Grape, black rot, mildew, and crown gall. 

Lettuce, mildew, drop, leaf spot, and rot. 

Maple, heart rot, mildew, and white rot. 

Muskmelon, blight and mold. 




278 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


Oak, rots. 

Oats, rust and smut. 

Onion, mildew, rust and smut. 

Pea, rust, root rot, and mildew. 

Peach, brown rot, leaf curl, mildew, scab. 

Pine, dry rot, rust. 

Plum, black knot, brown rot, plum pockets, and scab. 

Potato, blight, dry rot, and scab. 

Radish, club root and white rust. 

Rose, crown gall, mildew, rust. 

Rye, ergot, rust, smut. 

Sorghum, rust and smut. 

Squash, mildew, wilts, and root rot. 

Strawberry, leaf spot, mildew. 

Sunflower, mildew, rust. 

Sweet Potato, black rot, dry rot, soft rot, white rust. 

Tomato, blight, fruit rot, leaf spot, mildew. 

Violet, leaf blight, root rot, rust. 

Watermelon, mildew, wilt, leaf spot. 

Wheat, rust and smut. 

Willow, mildew, white rot, crown gall. 

It may be noted that many of the above plants have 
the same or similar diseases. Rusts and smuts generally 
' attack grains. Fruit trees are most often infected with 
brown rots, crown galls, mildews, and scabs. Blights are 
most common on garden vegetables and smaller plants. 
Timber trees appear to be more subject to white rots and 
heart rots. 

The Prevention of fungous diseases of plants is much 
more effective than curing them. It is very difficult to 
treat rusts and smuts in fields of grain. The best method 
of getting rid of these is to plant varieties that are re¬ 
sistant, or that do not have the diseases. Crop rotation 
does much to avoid fungi. Fruit trees have been very 


FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


279 


effectively treated with sprays. Solutions of very poison¬ 
ous chemicals are prepared and forced through a nozzle 
so that a mist is formed. This settles upon the branches 
of the trees, forming a covering which destroys the 
fungus. 

Peach and Pear trees may be almost completely rid 
of the common diseases by spraying with Bordeaux mix¬ 
ture just before and just after blossoming, or by applying 
lime sulphur mixture while the trees are dormant. Gar¬ 
den vegetables and herbaceous plants may best be 
treated by a system of rotation and by planting at times 
in the year when fungi are not so active. 

INSECTS 

The study of insects as the enemies of farm crops 
began about 1870 with the Potato beetle. It began to 
eat the leaves of potatoes and threatened to destroy all 
the white potatoes. Poisoning with Paris green began 
about that time. Some interesting things were found 
out about the life of the potato bug. The hard shelled, 
striped-backed bug is called the adult. It flies about, 
laying eggs, but does not eat the leaves. The eggs are 
found on the under side of potato leaves, looking like 
little orange colored sacks. A small red larva hatches 
from these eggs and begins to eat the leaves. If the 
supply of food is ample, the red slug or larva soon devel¬ 
ops into the hard shelled adult. 

The Cotton Boll Weevil is perhaps the most destruc¬ 
tive insect in the South. It lives upon the cotton plant 
entirely. The adult of the beetle is a hard shelled bug, 
with a light gray shell. Eggs are laid in May and June 
when the squares are formed on the cotton plants. These 
eggs hatch into a worm or larva which lives inside the 
boll. It eats the fiber, destroying the productiveness of 


280 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


the plant. After a few weeks, the larva changes into a 
sort of ball known as a pupa or resting stage. The pupa 
remains in the bolls from three to five days, when it 
again hatches into the adult. Eggs are laid and the 
same forms are developed as those shown above. A few 
of the adults survive the winter and lay eggs the next 
spring. Many plans have been suggested for destroying 
the boll weevil, but none has been entirely successful. 
Poisons have been used at the time when the squares 
were forming. A heavy spray or dust of arsenic prepara¬ 
tions seems to protect the cotton plants from serious 
injury. 

The Cotton Boll Worm, the red spider, the leaf roller 

and many other insects attack cotton. 

Plant Lice are very small insects found upon a great 
number of plants. They are often called aphids. You 
may find them on rose bushes or house plants, where the 
tender leaves begin to come out. The plant louse attack¬ 
ing cucumbers and melons is known as a melon aphis. 

The aphis has a very interesting relationship with 
small red ants. During the fall, the ants collect the eggs 
of the plant louse and take them into their homes under 
the ground, where they are kept during the winter. In 
the spring, you may observe the ants carrying the aphis 
eggs up the stalks of corn or grass. When the plant lice 
hatch, they suck the sap from the plant and make a 
kind of honey which the ants use for food. These may 
be observed about the growing stalks of corn. Thus the 
two insects work together to secure food. 

Scales.—Nearly all fruit trees and many kinds of 
shade trees are attacked by insects known as Scales. 
Dead branches of a tree often are covered with white, 
scale-like forms. These are the shells covering very 
small insects which suck sap from the tree. A great 


FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


283 


many of these will soon destroy a tree. Spraying with 
a strong solution of lime sulphur during the winter will 
destroy scales. 

Weevils are perhaps very destructive to stored grains 
and seeds. The larvae or worms live inside the seed 
coat, destroying the stored food. The pea weevils cause 
great losses to millers by spoiling flour and meal. Car¬ 
bon disulphide in a closed bin will destroy weevil. 

Butterflies and Moths of many kinds lay eggs which 
hatch into caterpillars and worms. Cabbage worms, cut¬ 
worms, army worms, bag-worms, caterpillars, and silk 
worms are common members of this group. Most of 
these worms eat leaves and may be poisoned by the use 
of arsenate of lead or Paris green. 

Grasshoppers and crickets do much damage in the 
field by eating grass and growing crops. Such multi¬ 
tudes often appear that whole fields are devastated. 
These may be destroyed by mixing Paris green and bran, 
and broadcasting it over the field. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a weed? Insect? 

2. Name eight enemies of farm crops. 

3. Of what importance is the study of weeds and insects to 
practical farmers? 

4. Why are weeds valuable to farmers? 

5. Name four common weeds that you can identify and four 
insects in your community. 

6. What are fungi? 

7. Name six kinds of fungi. 

8. What are bacteria? Spores? 

9. Mention three methods of combating smuts and rusts. 

10. Explain three ways of preventing the growth of fungi. 

11. Give the life history of the cotton boll weevil. 

12. How do plant lice feed? 

13. What method may be used for killing plant lice? 


282 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


14. What familiar crops are injured by plant lice? 

15. How does a butterfly differ from a moth? 

16. How may weevils be destroyed? 

17. How are grasshoppers destroyed? 

PRACTICAL WORK 

1. Collect eggs, cocoons, larvae and pupae of insects. If these 
are placed under glass jars and studied during the year, the 
various stages may be studied as the changes take place. Cater¬ 
pillars may be fed leaves until the cocoon is formed. It is very 
interesting to collect potato bug eggs and hatch the young red 
larvae under a jar. 

2. If the class has made a collection of weed seeds for the 
school room display (Fig. 10), some of these seeds should be 
germinated to study the method of breaking the seed coat. Note 
the young seedlings. Do they grow more readily than wheat or 
corn? Try to germinate cockleburs without breaking the seed 
coat. Then open the bur and scratch the seed. Note how 
quickly these germinate. This may explain why cockleburs 
remain so long in the soil. 

3. Collect a number of fleshy fungi. Examine those growing 
upon the bark of dead trees and upon decayed logs. Find the 
white thread-like structure under them. Gather several dried and 
decayed peaches or plums that have remained upon the trees 
over the wipter. Put these under a glass jar with moist cotton 
or paper. After a few days, note the different kinds of growths. 
This fungus growth was probably the cause of the brown rot 
of the fruit of the previous season. Keep corn moist, under a 
jar, and note the molds growing upon the grains. 

WORDS TO BE LEARNED 

Cankers. Any disease of trees causing slow decay of the bark 
and wood. 

Devastated. To lay waste; desolate. 

Herbaceous. Pertaining to or having the characteristics of 
herbs. 

Medicinal. That which is useful for medicine. 


FAMILIAR FARM ENEMIES 


283 


REFERENCES 

“Fungous Diseases of Plants," B. to. Duggar, Ginn and Company. 
^ Civic and Economic Biology,” Blakiston. 

Information for Fruit Growers About Insecticides, Spraying 
Apparatus, and Some Important Insect Pests,” U. S. Dept 
of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 908. 

“Weeds Used in Medicine,” U. S. Dept, of Agri., Farmers’ Bui. 188. 


CHAPTER XXIII 


THE LOCAL CLUB ORGANIZATION 

Why Boys and Girls Should Take Up Club Work. 

“As a national organization, Field Crop, Livestock and 
Home Demonstration Club work has grown to such pro¬ 
portions that it now embraces a membership of more 
than 600,000 boys and girls of the rural districts. These 
questions are often asked: “Why do boys and girls join 
these organizations?” and “What do such organizations 
mean to the boys and girls?” These questions are 
answered as follows: 

1. Club work is a means of acquiring more education. 

2. Club work is a means of earning dollars and cents. 

3. Club work increases one’s independence by increas¬ 
ing one’s wealth. 

4. Club work breaks down lonesomeness and isolation 
by providing forms of organized associations. 

5. Club work provides an avenue for the development 
of leadership. 

6. Club work stimulates pride in the local community, 
and makes life in the community more attractive. 

7. Club work provides for play and recreation; isolated 
or individual play is not natural. 

8. Club work develops the agricultural and livestock 
assets of the community. 

9. Club work opens up visions of other things, other 
places, other institutions, other people. 

10. Club work is doing its part right now in providing 
more and better food and feed at a lower cost. 


284 


THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 


285 


11. Club work stimulates interest and cooperation 
among members of the family and the people of the com¬ 
munity. 

12. Club work makes better home-makers and better 
citizens. 

How to Organize a Club.—Whenever there are ten 
or more club members legally enrolled in the Boys and 
Girls Demonstration Clubs, through the assistance of 



Fig. 198.—A club meeting in a natural clubroom. 


the county agents or teachers, a local club may be or¬ 
ganized for the purpose of holding regular meetings and 
thus encourage and advance the value of the work. 

A meeting of the enrolled club members should be 
called by the teacher or county agent, and the constitu¬ 
tion printed in this chapter adopted. The next step will 
be the election of officers. After this, application should 
be made to the Boys and Girls Club Department of the 
A. and M. College, for a club charter, using the blank 
provided by the Club Department. After the receipt of 
the charter, the club is fully authorized to proceed with 
the year’s work, as outlined in this chapter. 



286 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


In counties where there are both men and women 
agents, it is advisable to form one organization for boys 
and girls. This plan is preferred where the local agents 
think it advisable. Since the boys’ work is more closely 
connected with agriculture and field work than with can¬ 
ning, drying, and breadmaking, it will usually be satis¬ 
factory to have a general meeting for about an hour, 
then divide the forces so instruction can be given for each 
individual club. Where it is found advisable to form 
separate organizations for both boys and girls, the plans 
suggested in this chapter may be changed to meet local 
conditions. 



Fig. 199.—Calf club members produce some valuable beef animals. 


Membership and Duties of Officers.—The member¬ 
ship consists of boys and girls from ten to eighteen years 
of age who have made out official enrollment cards. Boys 
must agree to cultivate one acre or more of farm crops or 
grow livestock, according to the instructions of the 
county demonstration agent. Girls must agree to culti¬ 
vate one-tenth acre garden, raise chickens or bake better 
bread, according to instruction given by home demon¬ 
stration agent or supervisor. 

The officers of each local club shall consist of president, 
vice president, secretary and supervisor. 




THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 287 

When such a club is composed of boys and girls, the 
following sub-officers should be elected: 

The Boys. — Plowman, Seedman, Tiller, Harvester, and 
Herdsman. 

The Girls. — Minerva, Pomona, Fortuna. 

When the club is composed of girls only, the sub-offices 
filled by boys should be omitted. 



Fig. 200.—The results of good club work. Five years ago, the young lady 
started with one Jersey heifer. She now has five splendid cows. 


The officers shall be elected to serve one year. 

The president, or, in his absence, the vice president, 
shall preside at all meetings and take an active interest 
in the affairs of the club. 

The secretary shall keep an accurate record of the 
business of the club in the Secretary’s book furnished by 
Office of Boys and Girls Clubs; he shall keep the dem¬ 
onstration agents informed as to the progress and con¬ 
ditions of the club work. 

The supervisor or assistant supervisor shall have gen- 








288 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


eral supervision of the local club and the power of exer¬ 
cising authority in its proper management. ' 

The duties of the sub-officers are explained elsewhere 
in this chapter. 

There are no fees or dues to be exacted from the club 
members, but there shall be no objection to the local 
club raising money for special purposes. 

Each local club shall send one or more representa¬ 
tives to the county club rally or Short Course, which 
will be called by the county agents. 

Suggested Constitution and By-Laws 

Article 1 . Name of ClubA-This organization shall be 

known as the.School Boys and 

Girls Demonstration Club. 

Article 2. Objects of club.—The objects of the club 
shall be to make rural community life more attractive, 
to encourage interest and cooperation among people in 
the community, and to make farm home’and life more 
interesting and farming more profitable. 

Article 3. Membership.—Boys and girls from ten to 
eighteen years Of age shall be eligible. 

Article 4. Officers.—The officers of this club shall be 
a supervisor, president, vice president and secretary. 

Article 5. Duties of Members.—Prescribed in the 
rules for contests in each club, such as: Follow instruc¬ 
tions, attend club meetnigs, make exhibits at the school 
and county fairs, and keep a record of the expenses, 
income, observations and work. 

Article 6. Duties of Officers.—The president shall 
preside at all meetings; the secretary shall keep the min¬ 
utes and records of all such meetings; the vice president 
may act as president in the absence or disability of that 
officer. The supervisor shall have the general super- 



THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 


289 


vision of all local club work, and power of exercising 
authority in proper management of the club. 

Article 7. There shall be eight sub-officers, namely; 
Plowman, Seedman, Tiller, Harvester and Herdsman; 
Minerva, Pomona, and Fortuna, whose duties shall be 
such as prescribed elsewhere in this chapter. 

Article 8. Advisory Committee.—An advisory com¬ 
mittee shall arrange for all public contests and exhibits, 
the procuring and awarding of prizes, and the report¬ 
ing of statistics and other information to the county 
agents. This committee shall consist of the county 
agent, the home demonstration agent, if there is one, 
the county superintendent of schools, and one or two 
members representing the business interests of the 
county. 

Article 9. Field Instruction.—The county and home 
demonstration agents shall have charge of all field meet¬ 
ings and practical instruction. 

BY-LAWS 

1. The members of the club shall agree to read all 
reference literature bearing upon home projects. This 
may include literature dealing with the growing of corn, 
grain sorghums, cotton, peanuts, poultry, pigs, calves, 
breadmaking, canning, etc. 

2. A written plan of work of each member must be 
prepared for the teacher. They must do all the work 
connected with the particular contest or project entered 
upon. 

3. The amount of yield by weight and measurement of 
land in the Crop and Canning Clubs, and the records in 
Livestock and Poultry Clubs must be certified to for the 
contestants by at least two disinterested witnesses, pre¬ 
ferably members of the local school board. 


290 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


4. Every member of the club should make an exhibit 
at the annual school fair, county fair, or club contest. 

5. In order to determine profits, the general expense 
account for each club activity will be accurately kept. 

6. All awards on club work shall be based upon the 
score cards listed in the Club Rules. 

7. No local organization shall be formed with less than 
ten boys or five girls, nor less than ten members when 
the boys and girls club is organized together. 

8. Upon passing their eighteenth year, club members 
will be eligible to membership in the local community 
club. 

9. Each members’s name should appear upon the pro¬ 
gram at least once during the year. 

Suggestions for Holding Meetings.—Once a month 
is often enough to hold the meetings. If, for any reason, 
it is desired to hold the meetings oftener, there will be no 
objection. 

The secretary shall keep a record of all meetings in the 
secretary’s book, which is furnished by the Boys and 
Girls Club Department of the A. and M. College. 

Those who are to take part in the meetings should 
have their topics given in advance so they can make 
preparation. It may be well to have a program com¬ 
mittee. 

The members should, when possible, get their parents 
and friends to attend the meetings. 

If possible, have one progressive man or woman of the 
community talk ten minutes to the boys and girls at each 
meeting. 

Parliamentary Practice.—Club members should be 
familiarized with the following suggestions: 

1. Always address the president as Mr. or Madam 
President. 


THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 


291 


2. All remarks should be addressed to the president. 

3. There should be no talking between members. 

4. The president should recognize the person who seeks 

the floor by saying “Mr. (or Miss). 

(person’s name).” 

5. This indicates that the person thus recognized has 
the privilege of speaking and must not be interrupted. 

6. The only interruptions allowable are (1) a call for 
point of order, or (2) a question. 

7. A point of order applies to a member who has made 
a motion which is out of order because of another motion 
before the house, or to a member whose remarks are not 
on the subject under consideration, or to a person who 
is exceeding the time limit for discussion, etc. 

8. Never offer a motion by saying: “I move you,” but 
simply with “I move,” etc. 

9. Never offer a motion while another motion is still 
before the meeting. 

10. Before any matter is voted upon, the presiding 
officer must state the motion fully and completely. 

11. The ordinary form of voting upon the regular mo¬ 
tion is as follows; Presiding Officer: “All favoring this 
motion-will stand (a short pause to count); be seated; 
contrary, stand.” The presiding officer then announces 
the result by saying; “The motion is carried” or “The 
motion is lost.” 

Question.— A speaker may .be interrupted by any 
member for the purpose of asking a question. This 
question may be one of personal privilege or may be for 
the purpose of gaining information about the subject 
under discussion. The execution of this motion may pro¬ 
ceed as follows, member taking floor while another is 
speaking: 

“Mr. President, I rise to a question of information.” 



292 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Presiding Officer: State your Question.” 

12. Motions for question of privilege or point of order 
take precedence over all other motions. 

13. Never attempt to place too many amendments to a 
motion. (Two are allowable; that is, an amendment to 
an amendment.) It is usually much better to offer a sub¬ 
stitute motion. 

14. A motion may not be put to a vote of the meeting 
until it has been seconded or supported by some mem¬ 
ber other than the one making the motion. 

15. In case of a tie vote the president or presiding 
officer decides the motion. 

16. A motion to adjourn the meeting is in order at any 
time. 

In addition to these simple suggestions, which may 
serve for the beginning of the club’s activities, each club 
should have a modern work on parliamentary practice. 

Order of Business 

President: “We will now proceed with the general 
order of business.” 

1. The secretary will now call the roll. 

(Each member responds to his name by giving a brief 
history of his club activities since the last meeting.) If 
the enrollment of the club is large, it is sometimes advis¬ 
able to have some one member of the club give the report 
of the entire club—as Ppultry Club members would give 
totals for Poultry Club, as 1,000 chickens hatched, 2,000 
eggs setting, 20 brooder coops made. All girls have made 
aprons. 

2. Reading of the minutes of previous meeting; also 
any communications. 

3. Receiving applications for membership. 

4. Special program for the month can now be taken up. 


THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 


293 


(See program in this chapter. In case the program 
suggested for the month is fieldwork, the meeting should 
be adjourned to be continued in the field. If not, follow 
the program suggested under the proper month.) 

5. General business and remarks. 

6. Inspection of report books. 

7. Report and suggestions by supervisor or agent. 

8. Ten-minute talk by man or woman living in the 
community.” 

From—“The Local Club Organization,” 

Oklahoma A. and M. College, Circ. No. 129. 

Things To Do During— 

September 

1. Making the fall gardens, and growing such as; tur¬ 
nips, cabbages, and lettuce. 

2. Selecting seeds and preparing exhibits, such as: 
corn, cotton, grain sorghums, and peanuts. 

3. Collecting garden and field seeds for the next sea¬ 
son’s crop. 

4. Picking cotton and selecting better bolls for seed. 

5. Building seed corn racks. 

6. Visit the club work and home projects of the com¬ 
munity. 


October 

1. Picking cotton. 

2. Digging sweet potatoes and peanuts. 

3. Preparing for the county and state fairs. 

4. Arrange a community poultry and products show. 

5. Fall plowing and fertilizing. 

6. Prepare winter quarters for the livestock. 

7. Prepare winter feeds, and fuel supply. 


294 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


November 

1. Planting trees. 

2. Pruning, mulching and plowing orchards. 

3. Completing records of season’s crops. 

4. Starting records of weather (A Weather Chart). 

5. Breed sows for spring litters. 

6. Dispose of surplus poultry stock and culls. 

7. Make things needed on the farm. 

December 

1. Repair and build fences. 

2. Complete indoor repairing of farm equipment. 

3. Feed the hens plenty of protein foods for winter 
eggs. 

4. Grade and repair the roads. 

5. Learn corn scoring and judging. 

January 

1. Make New Year’s resolutions. 

2. Prepare to keep a Farm Record for every day. 

3. Learn what kinds of fertilizer will be needed the 
next year. 

4. Prepare hotbeds. 

5. Begin testing seed corn and other grains. 

6. Visit farms and observe the methods of caring for 
livestock. 

February 

1. Plant the hotbed. 

2. Prepare warm houses for the coming families of 
pigs. 

3. Apply winter sprays to trees, for insects and 
diseases. 

4. Prepare eggs for setting and set hens or incubators. 


THE LOCAL ORGANIZATION 


295 


5. Complete seed testing and prepare seeds for spring 
planting. 

6. Plant the early spring garden. 

7. Market eggs in standard crates, graded. 

March 

1. Prepare soil for spring crops. 

2. Plant corn and small grains. 

3. Care for young pigs. 

4. Clean poultry yards and houses. 

5. Plant more garden and cultivate it. 

6. Start club work. 

7. Provide coops for hens and chicks. 

April 

1. Cultivate corn and gardens. 

2. Spray fruit trees to destroy insects. 

3. Rebuild terraces to prevent soil washing. 

4. Prepare for cotton planting. 

5. Plant forage crops. 

6. Dust or dip hens to destroy lice. 

7. Transplant tomatoes, eggplants and peppers into 


1. Market and can surplus vegetables. 

2. Weed the flower beds and mow the lawn. 

3. Sharpen hoes and chop cotton. 

4. Pick berries. 

5. Plant legumes to improve soil. 

6. Sell roosters and produce infertile eggs. 

June 

1. Keep fresh water and shade for the chicks. 

2. Destroy rats. 


296 


ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 


3. Start milk records; weigh milk and feeds. 

4. Cultivate soil to hold moisture. 

5. Bud fruit trees. 

6. Keep ditches open. 

7. Destroy insect pests by poisoning. 

8. Threshing wheat. 

July 

1. Late cultivation of corn, grain sorghums and pea- 
nuts. 

2. Prepare soil for wheat. 

3. Provide shade and water for the pigs. 

4. Cull the poultry; sell “boarder” hens. 

5. Canning and preserving fruit. 

August 

1. Keep trees and flowers watered 

2. Keep a record of money made during the year. 

3. Prepare soil for the fall garden. 

4. Put cultivating machinery in the shed. 

5. Arrange for a camping trip. 


INDEX 


A 

Aberdeen-Angus, 77 
Abrupt, 61 
Adulteration, 10 
Agriculture, 13 
Alfalfa, 241 
Alkali, 157 
Anchor, 73 
Annular, 73 
Annuals, 190 
Apricots, 51 
Apples, 51 
Arboriculture, 62 
Arbor, 197 
Architecture, 197 
Art, 1 

Avalanche, 157 
Ayrshires, 86 

B 

Bacon, 126 
Ballast, 47 
Barley, 230 
Barriers, 187 
Beauty, 189 
Belgians, 99 
Berkshire, 112 
Bermuda, 201 
Blackberries, 51 
Blotches, 32 
Bois d’arc, 69 
Boll, 14 

Boll-weevil, 279 
Boll-worm, 280 
Border, 189 
Breeds, 75, 98, 112 
Breeching, 108 
Broadcast, 231 
Broiler, 144 
Brood, 47 


Brood coop, 36 
Broody hens, 133, 135 
Broom corn, 233 
Brown Swiss, 87 
Bulbs, 194, 197 
Burlap, 178 
Business, 2 
Butterflies, 281 

C 

Calcium arsenate, 259 
Cannas, 205 
Cankers, 282 
Canvass, 269 
Capsule, 126 
Capped, 231 
Carbon, dioxide, 67 
Carbon disulphide, 17 
Carcass, 126 
Care of Grounds, 208 
Cartons, 31 
Catalogue, 187 
Cattle, 75 
Chaff, 219 
Checked, 219 
Checks, 32 
Chemicals, 61 
Chester White, 113 
Chickens, 129 
Chicken pox, 139 
Chicks, 137 
Clabber, 144 
Classification, 9 
Clothing, 1 
Clover, 242 
Club constitution, 288 
membership, 286 
officers, 287 
organization, 284 
Clydesdales, 100 
Cockerel, 144 


297 


298 

Cocks, 244 
Cold frame, 184 
Collecting, 11, 71 
Commercial, 10 
Commercial fertilizer, 165 
Commission, 444 
Community, 26 
Comparing, 21 
Competition, 22, 32 
Companion crops, 186 
Concrete, 40, 47 
Conform, 32 
Contour, 1 

Controlling diseases, 58 
Coppers, 126 
Corn, 12, 24, 213 
Cotton, 13, 27, 173, 246 
cultivation, 253 
fertilizers, 253 
chopping, 252 
ginning, 256 
harvesting, 256 
Cotton marketing, 257 
planting, 249 
states, 247 
pests, 254 
seed, 256 
types, 246 
soils, 248 
varieties, 247 
Cowpeas, 239 
Cranks, 38 
Creeps, 35 
Culling poultry, 140 
Cutivation, 55, 216 
Cylindrical, 32 

D 

Dairy cattle, 82 
Dappled, 108 
Deciduous, 73 
Denatured, 269 
Dent corn, 213 
Dewberries, 51 
Diameter, 212 
Disease, 61, 120 
Disease prevention, 278 
Disinfectant, 144 
Display, 18 
Dodder, 271 


INDEX 

Dormant, 61 
Dormant seeds, 168 
Draft horse, 108 
Drainage, 162, 163 
Ducks, 129 

E 

Economical, 47 
Eggs, 29, 128 
Elements, 219 
Eliminate, 219 
Embryo, 178 
Environment, 61 
Equipment, 33 
Excavation, 269 
Exhibits, 21 

F 

Fahrenheit, 187 
Farm, 4 

Farm enemies, 270 
Farrowing, 47 
Feeders, 80 
Feeding, 78, 115 
Feeding horses, 100 
mules, 106 
Feed troughs, 33 
Fetlock, 108 
Flint com, 214 
Fiber, 32 
Flowers, 189 
Forage crops, 28-232 
Forest, 62 
Formaldehyde, 231 
Freakish, 24 
Friable, 67 
Frier, 144 
Frisking, 3 
Fruit, 49 
Fumigation, 19 
Fundamental, 1 
Fungi, 178, 272 
Fungus, 61 
Furniture, 67 
Furrow, 244 

G 

Galloway, 78 
, Galls, 276 


INDEX 


299 


Gardens, 179 
Gates, 43 
Geese, 129 
Glutinous, 231 
Grapes, 51 
Grain, 73 
Grouting, 41 
Green feed, 88 
Growing plants, 210 
Guernseys, 85 
Guide board, 47 
Guineas, 132 

H 

Hame, 108 
Hampshire, 112 
Handling fruits, 59 
Harrowing, 159 
Harvesting, 223 
Harvesting corn, 217 
wheat, 229 
Hatching eggs, 132 
Heeling-in, 53 
Herbaceous, 282 
Herefords, 76 
Herd, 126 
Heredity, 19 
Hinnies, 103 
Hogs, 110 
Hog house, 33 
cholera, 123 
Hogging off, 118, 217 
Holstein-Friesian, 84 
Horses, 97 
Hot beds, 183 
Home projects, 128 
Housing cattle, 88 
Humid, 157 
Humus, 157 
Hybrid, 108 
Husk, 19 

I 

Immunization, 126 
Incubation, 136 
Indentation, 32 
Infertile, 144 
Inherit, 19 
Inoculate, 244 


Instinct, 145 
Institution, 197 

J 

Jerseys, 83 
Johnson grass, 237 

K 

Kernels, 32 

Kinds of poultry, 132 

Knots, 44 

L 

Larvae, 178 
Lawns, 199 
Legumes, 239 
Leguminous, 244 
Lice, 122 
Linters, 32 
Lint, 259 
Livestock, 1 
Location, 49 
Loam, 61 
Lock, 19 
Luscious, 212 
Luxuries, 249 

M 

Making rope, 39 
Marketing, 118 
oats, 223 
poultry, 142 
Mash, 145 
Medicinal, 282 
Menace, 167 
Mold, 47 
Moths, 17, 281 
Mongrel, 126 
Miller, 231 
Mulches, 55, 61, 159 
Mules, 103 
Mule states, 104 

N 

Nitrogen, 61, 165 
Nodules, 73, 145 
Nursery, 50, 55 


300 


INDEX 


O 

Oats, 15, 220 
Oblong flower beds, 206 
Observation, 32 
Orchard, 49 
Organic matter, 160 
Ornamental, 212 
Osage orange, 68 
Oxygen, 67 

P 

Parasite, 178 
Parental, 22 
Peaches, 51, 279 
Peanuts, 15, 240 
Pears, 51 
Pecans, 51 
Pelvic, 145 
Percheron, 98 
Perennials, 178 
Persimmons, 51 
Pets, 3 
Phase, 145 
Phosphorus, 165 
Pigs, 110 
Planting, 54 
corn, 214 
oats, 221 
orchards, 53 
trees, 207 
wheat, 227 
Plant lice, 280 
Plums, 51 

Plymouth Rock, 123 
Pods, 16 

Poland China, 112 
Portland Cement, 48 
Portray, 1 
Porous, 157 
Pop corn, 214 
Posts, 43 
Poultry, 128 
Poultry equipment, 129 
house, 35 

Preparing nests, 134 
Procedure, 6 
Propagation, 19 


Property lines, 206 
Protein, 136 
Pruning, 55 

Q 

Qualities, 97, 113 

R 

Raising pigs, 119 
Razor-back, 110 
Rag doll, 170 
Records, 90 
Red polls, 78 
Reforesting, 62 
Refuge, 167 
Registration, 114 
Reinforced, 48 
Rejuvenating, 61 
Rhode Island red, 133 
Ribbon bed, 206 
Rope machine, 37 
Rope making, 36 
Rose garden, 204 
Rotation, 8, 220 
Rye, 229 

S 

Sappiness, 19 
Saw-dust box, 175 
Scale, 208 
Science, 1, 8 
Scours, 122 
Seeds, 9, 183 
Seed box, 175 
Seed germination, 168 
Seed bed, 181 
Selection, 12 
Shank, 32, 145 
Shade trees, 270 
Shires, 99 
Shocked, 231 
Shorthorns, 76 
Shrubs, 192, 212 
Shipping crate, 33 
Silage, 96 
Site, 179 
Slogan, 187 


INDEX 


301 


Small grains, 220 
Smut, 171, 275 
Snapped, 219 
Soil, 146 
alkali, 152 
buildings, 147 
classification, 148 
formation, 146 
heavy and light, 151 
particles. 150 
sour, 152 
water, 152 
sources, 147 
Solvent, 157 
Sorghum, 232 
Source, 50 
Soybeans, 239 
Species, 19 
Splices, 44 
Splicing, 48 
Spore, 170 

Spotted, Poland, 112 
Staple, 1, 259 
Standard, exhibits, 24 
Stanchion, 96 
Stifle, 108 
Storing, 15, 16 
Strain, 96 

Strawberries, 49, 51 
Stripped, 90 
Stump, 65 
Stubble, 231 
Subsoil, 146, 158 
Suburban, 200 
Succession crops, 186 
Sudan grass, 236 
Suffolk, 100 
Survey, 4, 5, 8 
Sweet corn, 214 
Sweet potato, 260 
cultivation, 265 
curing, 267 
enemies, 266 
harvesting, 267 
grading, 267 
marketing, 267 
planting, 263 
sets, 262 
varieties, 261 
Sweet sorghum, 244 
Switch, 96 


T 

Tamp, 61 
Tamworth, 113 
Tap, 67 
Tankage, 126 
Terracing, 163 
Tepid, 145 
Testing seed, 169 
Textile, 259 
Tendencies, 96 
Things to do, 293 
Tillage, 158 
Tilling, 8 
Torrent, 73 
Tree, 65 
Trellis, 198 
Triangular, 48 
Trip, 9 
Trunk, 65 
Tuberous, 198 
Turkeys, 129 
Twine, 39 
Type, 97 
Type of hog, 114 

U 

Udder, 96 

Undesirable view, 203 
Underline, 126 
Unfurl, 3 
Utensils, 75 

V 

Varieties, 19, 50 
Vegetable garden, 179 
Vent, 145 
Vermin, 18, 20 
Vetch, 243 
Virgin, 157 

W 

Wallow, 126 
Water, 89 
Water furrow, 219 
Water sprouts, 58, 61 
Weather, 157 
Weeds, 270 


302 


INDEX 


Wheat, 223 
Weevil, 17 
Wheat soils, 226 
White diarrhea, 138 
Wild grass, 238 
Wild flowers, 195 
Windrows, 244 
Wood lot, 70 


Worms, 123 
Wyandotte, 133 

Y 

Yards, 34 
Yolks, 30 
Yorkshire, 123 












































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